12: Civilizations in the Americas
- Page ID
- 72161
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)- 12.1: The Mixtec
- This page discusses the Mixtec, an indigenous Mesoamerican group from La Mixteca in Mexico, notable for their historical codices and peak prominence in the 11th century. With around 800,000 individuals living in Mexico and a significant diaspora in the U.S., the Mixtec language comprises about fifty distinct languages. Tututepec was a major historical center under Eight Deer Jaguar Claw's leadership.
- 12.2: Teotihuacan
- This page discusses Teotihuacan, a pre-Columbian city founded around 100 BCE near modern Mexico City, which reached a peak population of about 125,000 by 450 CE. It was known for its significant architecture, including the Pyramid of the Sun, and elaborate murals. The city's urban planning reflected Mesoamerican cosmic principles. Its decline around 550 CE is attributed to factors like climate change and social unrest, illustrating the complexity of its cultural legacy.
- 12.3: The Zapotec
- This page discusses the Zapotec civilization that emerged in Oaxaca's Central Valleys around the late 6th Century BCE, marked by five periods focusing on Monte Albán. Known for their polytheism, deities like Cocijo, and an early writing system, they expanded until the 2nd century CE before declining due to military defeats and Spanish conquest by 1527.
- 12.4: The Preclassic Period of the Maya
- This page outlines the Preclassic period of Mayan civilization from 2000 BCE to 250 CE, divided into four phases: Early, Middle, Late, and Terminal Preclassic. The Early phase marks the shift to agriculture, the Middle sees the emergence of complex societies and city-states such as Kaminaljuyu, and the Late introduces writing and powerful states. The period ends with the collapse of major cities during the Terminal Preclassic, establishing foundational elements of Mesoamerican culture.
- 12.5: The Classic Period of the Maya
- This page discusses the Classic Maya period (250-900 CE), characterized by urbanism, monumental architecture, and cultural advancements in city-states like Tikal and Copán. The Maya employed complex calendars and a sophisticated economy, engaging in long-distance trade. However, the civilization faced decline in the 8th and 9th centuries due to factors such as trade disruptions and environmental challenges, with the exact causes remaining unclear.
- 12.6: The Decline of the Maya
- This page details the Postclassic period of the Maya Empire (900-1600 CE), highlighting the power shift to the northern Yucatán with thriving cities like Chichén Itzá and Uxmal. It discusses the impact of warfare and water resource searches on population movements, technological advancements in architecture and weaponry, and a strong religious culture focused on ancestor worship.
- 12.7: The Toltecs
- This page discusses the Toltecs, an archaeological Mesoamerican culture from Tula during the early Postclassic period (c. 800–1000 CE). Knowledge about them primarily comes from Aztec accounts, which are debated among scholars regarding their historical reliability. There is also discussion on the Toltecs' influence on Mesoamerican culture, especially in architecture, and the enigmatic aspects of their identity and social dynamics continue to prompt scholarly exploration.
- 12.8: The Aztec People
- This page discusses the Aztec civilization, highlighting its city-state structure in the Valley of Mexico, with Tenochtitlan as the capital. Agriculture thrived through advanced irrigation and chinampa techniques. The economy relied on tribute and trade. Influential leaders like Moctezuma I and Tlacaelel spearheaded societal reforms, enriching cultural and religious life, and resulting in notable mythologies and architectural advancements.
- 12.9: Aztec Religion
- This page explores the Aztec religion, highlighting its diverse pantheon and key deities like Huitzilopochtli, Quetzalcoatl, and Tlaloc. Ritual sacrifice was central to their beliefs, ensuring agricultural success and the sun's return. The Aztecs used a 365-day calendar focused on agriculture, celebrated essential rituals, including the Mesoamerican ballgame, and priests conducted ceremonies at grand pyramids.
- 12.10: The Aztec in the Colonial Period
- This page discusses the Confederacy of Tlaxcala's pivotal role in the fall of the Aztec Empire during Hernándo Cortés's conquest starting in 1519, highlighting their alliance with Cortés against the Aztecs, weakened by smallpox. The conquest led to the capture of Tenochtitlan in 1521 and the establishment of Spanish rule in New Spain, while some Aztec cultural elements, such as the Nahuatl language, continue to influence modern Mexico.
- 12.11: The Moche
- This page discusses the Moche civilization in Peru (100-800 CE), characterized as a network of city-states with shared cultural values rather than a unified empire. Key elements of Moche life included advanced agriculture using irrigation, elaborate religious rituals involving human sacrifice, and unique art forms like ceramics and textiles. Monumental structures called huacas held significant cultural roles.
- 12.12: Great Basin Culture
- This page discusses the Great Basin civilizations, populated by Paleo-Indians from 10,500 BCE to 9,500 BCE, who were mobile hunters and gatherers focused on bison hunting. Lacking agriculture due to their arid environment, these Desert Archaic peoples developed intricate baskets and maintained a rich cultural identity through religious practices like the Ghost Dance and Ute Bear Dance, remaining largely unaffected by early European contact.
- 12.13: Pacific Coast Culture
- This page discusses how the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast flourished through ample natural resources, fostering cultural advancements in ceremonies, arts, and crafts. Their practices encompassed spirituality and symbolism, with music and art serving dual roles. Sustainable methods, like permaculture, enhanced ecosystems, while ceremonies like the potlatch highlighted social ties. Despite diverse identities, these groups shared animistic beliefs and a reverence for nature.
- 12.14: Eastern Woodland Culture
- This page discusses the evolution of the Eastern Woodland Cultural Region during the Woodland Period (1000 BCE - 1000 CE), highlighting advancements in agriculture and technology. It notes the development of key cultures like Adena and Hopewell, characterized by permanent settlements, burial practices, and pottery. The emergence of chiefdoms and trade networks is mentioned, alongside shifts in trade and resources that led to smaller settlements.
- 12.15: Southwestern Culture
- This page outlines the evolution of Southwest cultural traditions from Paleo-Indian hunting-gathering to permanent agricultural settlements. It highlights key developments like irrigation systems, adobe architecture, and pottery. Socially and religiously, communities formed around shared beliefs such as animism and shamanism, leading to the emergence of Pueblo peoples and notable cultural achievements.
- 12.16: Mississippian Culture
- This page discusses Mississippian cultures, which flourished from 800 to 1540 CE in the Mississippi valley through agriculture, particularly the "three sisters" of corn, beans, and squash. They built mounds and established complex chiefdoms with extensive trade networks. The arrival of Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto brought diseases that severely impacted populations, causing social and political collapse.
- 12.17: The Nazca
- This page discusses the Nazca civilization in southern Peru (100 BCE - 800 CE), known for chiefdoms, agriculture, ceremonial sites like Cahuachi, and the Nazca Lines geoglyphs. They utilized advanced irrigation and had religious beliefs centered on nature and fertility. The civilization declined around 750 CE due to environmental changes and deforestation, affecting their response to climate events like El Niño. Their medical practices included trephination and cranial manipulation.
- 12.18: The Sicán
- This page outlines the Sicán culture's history on Peru's north coast from 750 to 1375 CE, following the Moche. Key periods include the establishment of trade and unique ceramics in the early period (750-900 CE), cultural prosperity and social stratification during the Middle Sicán (900-1100 CE), and environmental challenges leading to their decline and conquest by the Chimú in the Late Sicán (1100-1375 CE).
- 12.19: Chimú
- This page details the Chimú culture's rise along Peru's northern coast from 900 CE until their 1470 conquest by the Inca. Their capital was Chan Chan, and they excelled in agriculture through innovations like huachaques and irrigation systems. The Chimú were noted for unique textiles and pottery, worshiping the Moon as a fertility deity and practicing various sacrifices. Their expansion included various ethnic groups before their eventual fall to the Inca.
- 12.20: The Inca People
- This page describes the Inca Empire, a sophisticated civilization from Chile to Colombia, centered in Cusco. Known for diverse agriculture with around seventy crops, advanced architecture, and intricate textiles, the Incas utilized terraced farming and dry stone masonry, exemplified by Machu Picchu. Their art and economy were reflected in ceramics and metalwork, with textiles denoting social status. The unique culture thrived from the 13th century until the Spanish conquest in 1572.
- 12.21: Administration of the Inca Empire
- This page discusses the Inca Empire's intricate societal structure, highlighting its extensive 25,000-mile road network for trade and communication, and the use of quipus for record-keeping. The empire was led by an emperor, with local governance managed by magistrates. A non-codified legal system and inspectors enforced social norms.
- 12.22: Religion in the Inca Empire
- This page discusses the Inca Empire's worship of the Sun god Inti, central to their religion and embodied in the Qurikancha temple. They also recognized other deities like Pachamama to incorporate diverse communities. Key festivals, such as Inti Raymi, honored Inti. Inca royalty claimed descent from him, with priests managing the worship. Beliefs included reincarnation and proper burial rites.
- 12.23: The Spanish Conquest
- This page details how Spanish explorers, under Francisco Pizarro, overthrew the Inca Empire by exploiting internal conflicts and diseases affecting the indigenous people. They captured and executed Inca ruler Atahualpa after demanding a ransom. The Spanish reinforced control through harsh labor taxes and dismantled Inca traditions, culminating in the fall of the last Inca stronghold in 1572.
- 12.24: The Olmec
- This page discusses the Olmec civilization, Mexico's first major society from 1500 to 400 BCE, known for its trade, ceremonial cities, and agricultural villages. Centered in La Venta, the Olmecs revered eight deities, and their sophisticated art, particularly colossal heads, is highlighted. The civilization's decline is attributed to environmental changes between 400 and 350 BCE, possibly related to agriculture or tectonic activity.