9.7: Key Terms

act utilitarianism

a utilitarian approach that proposes that people should apply the greatest happiness principle on a case-by-case basis

applied ethics

a branch of ethics that focuses on the application of moral norms to determine the permissibility of specific actions

care ethics

an approach to ethics that emphasizes the importance of subjective factors, specifics of concrete situations, and the relationships of individuals

categorical imperative

a moral law that individuals have a duty to follow and that is rationally devised through Kant’s four formulations

Confucianism

a normative moral theory that arose in ancient China during the Warring States period that proposes the development of individual character is key to the achievement of an ethical and harmonious society

consequentialism

a moral theory that looks at an action’s outcome or consequences to determine whether it is morally right

dao

in Confucianism, ethical principles or path by which to live life; in Daoism, the natural way of the universe and all things

Daoism

a belief system developed in ancient China that encourages the practice of living in accordance with the dao, the natural way of the universe and all things

deontology

a moral theory that focuses on duties or rules to determine the rightness of an action

essentialism

a view that a set of characteristics makes something what it is

ethics

the field of philosophy that investigates morality

eudaimonia

the flourishing life, which ancient Greek philosophers (e.g., Aristotle, the Stoics, and Epicurus) set as the aim of life

femininity

a social construct that categorizes specific traits as female and establishes society’s expectation of women

feminism

a political and philosophical movement that aims to end sexism and promote social justice for women

gender binarism

the view that each person can be categorized by one of two genders (male or female)

good will

the capacity to be a good person

greatest happiness principle

a principle that holds that actions are right when they produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people

higher pleasures

pleasures associated with the exercise of a person’s higher faculties (e.g., the use of higher cognitive faculties and/or participation in social/cultural life)

humanity formulation

a rational method of devising moral laws that specifies that each person be treated as an end, never merely as a means

hypothetical imperative

a rule that needs to be followed in order to achieve some (proposed) end

incidental friendship

casual relationships that are based on utility or pleasure

intersectionality

different aspects of identity (e.g., gender, race, sexuality, and class) that intersect in a person’s identity and define or influence their lived experience

junzi

in Confucianism, a person who is an exemplary ethical figure and lives according to the dao

Li

ritual and practice that develop a person’s ethical character as they interact with others

lower pleasures

pleasures associated with the exercise of a person’s lower faculties (e.g., basic sensory pleasures)

metaethics

a branch of ethics that focuses on foundational questions and moral reasoning

Mohism

a type of consequentialism established in ancient China by Mozi (ca. 430 BCE) during the Warring States period

naturalism

a belief that ethical claims can be derived from nonethical ones

normative ethics

a branch of ethics that focuses on establishing norms and standards of moral conduct

perfect friendship

relationships that foster individual virtue as they are based on love and the wish that another flourishes rather than the expectation of personal gain

pluralism

an approach to normative ethical theory that suggests a more complex, complete account of morality that provides for conflicting rules

prima facie duties

duties that are obligatory, other things being equal, or so long as other factors and circumstances remain the same

principle of utility

a principle that holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote pleasure and diminish pain

ren

a central concept in Confucianism that is used to mean either someone with complete virtue or to refer to specific virtues

rule utilitarianism

a utilitarian approach that proposes that people should use the greatest happiness principle to test possible moral rules to determine whether a given rule would produce greater happiness if it were followed

skepticism

a philosophical position that claims people do not know things they ordinarily think they know

trolley problems

classic thought experiments that use difficult ethical dilemmas to examine moral reasoning and deliberation

universal law formulation

a rational method of devising moral laws that proposes that a moral law must be applied universally to the whole of society

utilitarianism

a type of consequentialism introduced by Jeremy Bentham and developed by John Stuart Mill

virtue ethics

an approach to normative ethics that focuses on character

Warring States period

a period of widespread conflict, suffering, and social unrest in Chinese history that gave rise to highly influential philosophical approaches, including Mohism, Confucianism, and Daoism

wu wei

a natural way of acting—also called nonaction—that is spontaneous or immediate, one in which a person’s actions are in harmony with the flow of nature or existence