7.3: Old Kingdom

Old Kingdom: The Great Pyramids of Giza

by Dr. Amy Calvert

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): The Fourth Dynasty pyramids at Giza, Egypt. From left to right: Great Pyramid of Khufu, c. 2551-1528 BCE; pyramid of Khafre, c. 2520-2494 BCE; pyramid of Menkaure, c. 2490-2472 BCE. (Photo: Dr. Cerise Myers, CC BY 2.0)

One of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world

The last remaining of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world, the great pyramids of Giza are perhaps the most famous and discussed structures in history. These massive monuments were unsurpassed in height for thousands of years after their construction and continue to amaze and enthrall us with their overwhelming mass and seemingly impossible perfection. Their exacting orientation and mind-boggling construction has elicited many theories about their origins, including unsupported suggestions that they had extra-terrestrial impetus. However, by examining the several hundred years prior to their emergence on the Giza plateau, it becomes clear that these incredible structures were the result of many experiments, some more successful than others, and represent an apogee in the development of the royal mortuary complex.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Great Pyramid of Khafre. (Photo: Dr. Cerise Myers, CC BY 2.0)

Three pyramids, three rulers

The three primary pyramids on the Giza plateau were built over the span of three generations by the rulers Khufu, Khafre (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)), and Menkaure. Each pyramid was part of a royal mortuary complex that also included a temple at its base and a long stone causeway (some nearly 1 kilometer in length) leading east from the plateau to a valley temple on the edge of the floodplain (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)).

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): View up the causeway from Khafre’s valley temple towards his pyramid. (Photo: Dr. Amy Calvert, via Smarthistory)

Other (smaller) pyramids, and small tombs

In addition to these major structures, several smaller pyramids belonging to queens are arranged as satellites. A major cemetery of smaller tombs, known as mastabas (Arabic for ‘bench’ in reference to their shape—flat-roofed, rectangular, with sloping sides), fills the area to the east and west of the pyramid of Khufu and were constructed in a grid-like pattern for prominent members of the court. Being buried near the pharaoh was a great honor and helped ensure a prized place in the afterlife.

A reference to the sun

The shape of the pyramid was a solar reference, perhaps intended as a solidified version of the rays of the sun. Texts talk about the sun’s rays as a ramp the pharaoh mounts to climb to the sky—the earliest pyramids, such as the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara—were actually designed as a staircase. The pyramid was also clearly connected to the sacred ben-ben stone, an icon of the primeval mound that was considered the place of initial creation. The pyramid was considered a place of regeneration for the deceased ruler.

Construction

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Giza Pyramid Complex. (Map: MesserWoland, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Many questions remain about the construction of these massive monuments, and theories abound as to the actual methods used. The workforce needed to build these structures is also still much discussed. Discovery of a town for workers to the south of the plateau has offered some answers. It is likely that there was a permanent group of skilled craftsmen and builders who were supplemented by seasonal crews of approximately 2,000 conscripted peasants. These crews were divided into gangs of 200 men, with each group further divided into teams of 20. Experiments indicate that these groups of 20 men could haul the 2.5 ton blocks from quarry to pyramid in about 20 minutes, their path eased by a lubricated surface of wet silt. An estimated 340 stones could be moved daily from quarry to construction site, particularly when one considers that many of the blocks (such as those in the upper courses) were considerably smaller.

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): View of Khufu’s pyramid, showing the scale of the blocks. (Photo: Dr. Cerise Myers, CC BY 2.0)

c. Backstory (Dr. Naraelle Hohensee)

We are used to seeing the pyramids at Giza in alluring photographs, where they appear as massive and remote monuments rising up from an open, barren desert. Visitors might be surprised to find, then, that there is a golf course and resort only a few hundred feet from the Great Pyramid, and that the burgeoning suburbs of Giza (part of the greater metropolitan area of Cairo) have expanded right up to the foot of the Sphinx. This urban encroachment and the problems that come with it—such as pollution, waste, illegal activities, and auto traffic—are now the biggest threats to these invaluable examples of global cultural heritage.

Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): The Great Pyramids of Giza as seen on May 18, 2016 from U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry's plane as he travels from Vienna, Austria to Cairo. (Photo: U.S. Department of State, public domain) The pyramids themselves are on sandy desert that stretches out behind them, but in the foreground, urban construction crowds toward them.

The pyramids were inscribed into the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979, and since 1990, the organization has sponsored over a dozen missions to evaluate their status. It has supported the restoration of the Sphinx, as well as measures to curb the impact of tourism and manage the growth of the neighboring village. Still, threats to the site continue: air pollution (see Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)) from waste incineration contributes to the degradation of the stones, and the massive illegal quarrying of sand on the neighboring plateau has created holes large enough to be seen on Google Earth. Egypt’s 2011 uprisings and their chaotic political and economic aftermath also negatively impacted tourism, one of the country’s most important industries, and the number of visitors is only now beginning to rise once more.

Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\): Smoggy Cairo skyline from the Saladin Citadel, 2020. (Photo: Dr. Cerise Myers, CC BY)

UNESCO has continually monitored these issues, but its biggest task with regard to Giza has been to advocate for the rerouting of a highway that was originally slated to cut through the desert between the pyramids and the necropolis of Saqqara to the south. The government eventually agreed to build the highway north of the pyramids. However, as the Cairo metropolitan area (the largest in Africa, with a population of over 20 million) continues to expand, planners are now proposing a multilane tunnel to be constructed underneath the Giza Plateau. UNESCO and ICOMOS are calling for in-depth studies of the project’s potential impact, as well as an overall site management plan for the Giza pyramids that would include ways to halt the continued impact of illegal dumping and quarrying.

As massive as they are, the pyramids at Giza are not immutable. With the rapid growth of Cairo, they will need sufficient attention and protection if they are to remain intact as key touchstones of ancient history.

Global Connections: Moving Megaliths

Egypt’s great pyramids are not the only historical sites that have caused archaeologists to wonder about how massive, multi-ton materials were moved from quarries to construction sites. The Neolithic stone circle of Stonehenge, the columns of the Greek Parthenon, the dome of the Tomb of Theodoric, the Toltec-style pyramid of Chichén Itzá’s El Castillo, the colossal basalt Olmec heads from Veracruz, and the great moai of Rapa Nui were all made by societies who carved and moved massive stones.

Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\): Moai at Ahu Tongariki, volcanic tuff and scoria, c. 1400 CE, Rapa Nui (Easter Island). (Photo: Ellen C. Caldwell, CC BY-NC 2.0)

Rap Nui’s moai (monolithic carved human figures) were carved c. 1400 CE and each one weighed an average of 14 tons. They have long compelled archaeologists and anthropologists to study how humans transported them across the island, and recently, Rapanui oral tradition has helped to inform archaeologists to theorize and test how the moai “walked” into place. Similar environmental concerns to those in Egypt have arisen in Rapa Nui as well, though instead of the fear of urban encroachment as in Cairo, the major threats in Rapa Nui are a result of climate change and rising sea levels.

---

Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Sphinx

by Dr. Amy Calvert

Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\): Pyramids of Khufu (left), c. 2551-2528 BCE and Khafre, c. 2520-2494 BCE. (Photo: Dr. Cerise Myers, CC BY)

Size and appearance

The second great pyramid of Giza, that was built by Khufu’s second son Khafre, has a section of outer casing that still survives at the very top (and which would have entirely covered all three of the great pyramids at Giza). Although this monument appears larger than that of his father, it is actually slightly smaller but was constructed 10 m (33 feet) higher on the plateau.

Interior

The interior is much simpler than that of Khufu’s pyramid, with a single burial chamber, one small subsidiary chamber, and two passageways. The mortuary temple at the pyramid base was more complex than that of Khufu and was filled with statuary of the king–over 52 life-size or larger images originally filled the structure.

Valley temple

Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\): Pillars in Valley Temple of Khafre. (Photo: Dr. Amy Calvert, via Smarthistory)

Khafre’s valley temple, located at the east end of the causeway leading from the pyramid base, is beautifully preserved. It was constructed of megalithic blocks sheathed with granite and floors of polished white calcite. Statue bases indicate that an additional 24 images of the pharaoh were originally located in this temple.

The Great Sphinx

Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\): The Great Sphinx. (Photo: Dr. Amy Calvert, via Smarthistory)

Right next to the causeway leading from Khafre’s valley temple to the mortuary temple sits the first truly colossal sculpture in Egyptian history: the Great Sphinx. This close association indicates that this massive depiction of a recumbent lion with the head of a king was carved for Khafre.

Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\): The Great Sphinx with pyramids of Khafre (left) and Khufu (right). (Photo: Dr. Cerise Myers, CC BY)

The Sphinx is carved from the bedrock of the Giza plateau, and it appears that the core blocks used to construct the king’s valley temple were quarried from the layers of stone that run along the upper sides of this massive image.

Khafre

Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\): Khafre enthroned, from Gizeh, Egypt, Fourth Dynasty, c. 2520–2494 BCE. Diorite, 5’ 6” high. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. (Photo: Dr. Cerise Myers, CC BY)

The lion was a royal symbol as well as being connected with the sun as a symbol of the horizon; the fusion of this powerful animal with the head of the pharaoh was an icon that survived and was often used throughout Egyptian history. The king’s head is on a smaller scale than the body. This appears to have been due to a defect in the stone; a weakness recognized by the sculptors who compensated by elongating the body.

Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\): Khafre enthroned, from Gizeh, Egypt, Fourth Dynasty, c. 2520–2494 BCE. Diorite, 5’ 6” high. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. (Photo: Dr. Cerise Myers, CC BY)

Directly in front of the Sphinx is a separate temple dedicated to the worship of its cult, but very little is known about it since there are no Old Kingdom texts that refer to the Sphinx or its temple. The temple is similar to Khafre’s mortuary temple and has granite pillars forming a colonnade around a central courtyard. However, it is unique in that it has two sanctuaries—one on the east and one on the west—likely connected to the rising and setting sun.

Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\): Khafre enthroned (detail showing profile view of Khafre and Horus), from Gizeh, Egypt, Fourth Dynasty, c. 2520–2494 BCE. Diorite, 5’ 6” high. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. (Photo: Dr. Cerise Myers, CC BY)

Editors' Note

Like the statue of Gudea of Lagash, Khafre Enthroned is made of diorite, an extremely hard stone. In fact, it’s so hard, Egyptian sculptors made their tools for carving other, softer stones, from diorite! From the material to his rigid position, everything about this sculpture suggests a calm, god-like permanence. There are few projecting pieces to break off, and you’ll notice that the king’s body doesn’t detach from his throne. Both arms are held close to his body, with the hands—one in a closed first, the other with fingers straight—sealed to his thighs. This sculpture was found in Khafre’s pyramid, and sculptures like this served not only “as a focus for worship” (see King Menkaure [Mycerinus] and queen), but as a potential resting place for the ka. Further emphasizing the ruler’s divine status, although invisible from the front view, is the god Horus in falcon form, his wings—when seen from the side—seeming to cradle Khafre’s head and blend into his nemes headdress.

---

King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen

by Dr. Amy Calvert

Figure \(\PageIndex{16}\): King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen, 2490–2472 BCE. Greywacke, 142.2 x 57.1 x 55.2 cm. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. (Photo: tutincommon, CC BY-NC 2.0)

Serene ethereal beauty, raw royal power, and evidence of artistic virtuosity have rarely been simultaneously captured as well as in this breathtaking, nearly life-size statue of the pharaoh Menkaure and a queen. Smooth as silk, the meticulously finished surface of the dark stone captures the physical ideals of the time and creates a sense of eternity and immortality even today.

Undoubtedly, the most iconic structures from Ancient Egypt are the massive and enigmatic Great Pyramids that stand on a natural stone shelf, now known as the Giza plateau, on the south-western edge of modern Cairo. The three primary pyramids at Giza were constructed during the height of a period known as the Old Kingdom and served as burial places, memorials, and places of worship for a series of deceased rulers–the largest belonging to King Khufu, the middle to his son Khafre, and the smallest of the three to his son Menkaure.

Figure \(\PageIndex{17}\): View of the Giza plateau, facing southwest, showing the pyramid of Khufu and behind it the pyramids of Khafre and Menkaure. The Mortuary Temple of Khufu and Funerary Temple of Khafre are visible at left, and the mastabas of the West Field at Giza to the right. (Photo: kairoinfo4u, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Pyramids are not stand-alone structures. Those at Giza formed only a part of a much larger complex that included a temple at the base of the pyramid itself, long causeways and corridors, small subsidiary pyramids, and a second temple (known as a valley temple) some distance from the pyramid. These Valley Temples were used to perpetuate the cult of the deceased king and were active places of worship for hundreds of years (sometimes much longer) after the king’s death. Images of the king were placed in these temples to serve as a focus for worship—several such images have been found in these contexts, including the magnificent seated statue of Khafre, now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

Figure \(\PageIndex{18}\): George Reisner and Georg Steindorff at Harvard Camp, looking east toward Khufu and Khafre pyramids, 1935. (Photo: Albert Morton Lythgoe, Giza archives, via Smarthistory)

On January 10, 1910, excavators under the direction of George Reisner, head of the joint Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Expedition to Egypt, uncovered an astonishing collection of statuary in the Valley Temple connected to the Pyramid of Menkaure. Menkaure’s pyramid had been explored in the 1830s (using dynamite, no less). His carved granite sarcophagus was removed (and subsequently lost at sea), and while the Pyramid Temple at the base was in only mediocre condition; the Valley Temple, was—happily—basically ignored.Reisner had been excavating on the Giza plateau for several years at this point; his team had already explored the elite cemetery to the west of the Great Pyramid of Khufu before turning their attention to the Menkaure complex, most particularly the barely-touched Valley Temple.

Figure \(\PageIndex{19}\): Four greywacke triads, Menkaure's Valley Temple, S magazines, corridor III 4, 1908. (Photo: Giza archives, via Smarthistory)

In the southwest corner of the structure, the team discovered a magnificent cache of statuary carved in a smooth-grained dark stone called greywacke or schist. There were a number of triad statues—each showing 3 figures—the king, the fundamentally important goddess Hathor, and the personification of a nome (a geographic designation, similar to the modern idea of a region, district, or county) (compare to Menkaure between Hathor and the personification of the nome of Thebes).

Figure \(\PageIndex{20}\): Menkaure flanked by Hathor (left) and nome goddess. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. (Photo via Smarthistory)

Hathor was worshiped in the pyramid temple complexes along with the supreme sun god Re and the god Horus, who was represented by the living king. The goddess’s name is actually ‘Hwt-hor’, which means “The House of Horus,” and she was connected to the wife of the living king and the mother of the future king. Hathor was also a fierce protector who guarded her father Re; as an “Eye of Re” (the title assigned to a group of dangerous goddesses), she could embody the intense heat of the sun and use that blazing fire to destroy his enemies

There were four complete triads, one incomplete, and at least one other in a fragmentary condition. The precise meaning of these triads is uncertain. Reisner believed that there was one for each ancient Egyptian nome, meaning there would have originally been more than thirty of them. More recent scholarship, however, suggests that there were originally 8 triads, each connected with a major site associated with the cult of Hathor. Hathor’s prominence in the triads (she actually takes the central position in one of the sculptures) and her singular importance to kingship lends weight to this theory.

Figure \(\PageIndex{21}\): King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen. (Photo: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)

In addition to the triads, Reisner’s team also revealed the extraordinary dyad statue of Menkaure and a queen (Figure \(\PageIndex{21}\)) that is breathtakingly singular.

The two figures stand side-by-side on a simple, squared base and are supported by a shared back pillar. They both face to the front, although Menkaure’s head is noticeably turned to his right—this image was likely originally positioned within an architectural niche, making it appear as though they were emerging from the structure. The broad-shouldered, youthful body of the king is covered only with a traditional short pleated kilt, known as a shendjet, and his head sports the primary pharaonic insignia of the iconic striped nemes headdress (so well known from the mask of Tutankhamun) and an artificial royal beard. In his clenched fists, held straight down at his sides, Menkaure grasps ritual cloth rolls. His body is straight, strong, and eternally youthful with no signs of age. His facial features are remarkably individualized with prominent eyes, a fleshy nose, rounded cheeks, and full mouth with protruding lower lip.

Menkaure’s queen provides the perfect female counterpart to his youthful masculine virility. Sensuously modeled with a beautifully proportioned body emphasized by a clinging garment, she articulates ideal mature feminine beauty. There is a sense of the individual in both faces. Neither Menkaure nor his queen are depicted in the purely idealized manner that was the norm for royal images. Instead, through the overlay of royal formality we see the depiction of a living person filling the role of pharaoh and the personal features of a particular individual in the representation of his queen.

Figure \(\PageIndex{22}\): King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen, (detail showing the figures' left profiles). (Photo: 1910, Giza archives, via Smarthistory)

Menkaure and his queen stride forward with their left feet—this is entirely expected for the king, as males in Egyptian sculpture almost always do so, but it is unusual for the female since they are generally depicted with feet together. They both look beyond the present and into timeless eternity, their otherworldly visage displaying no human emotion whatsoever.

The dyad was never finished—the area around the lower legs has not received a final polish, and there is no inscription. However, despite this incomplete state, the image was erected in the temple and was brightly painted—there are traces of red around the king’s ears and mouth and yellow on the queen’s face. The presence of paint atop the smooth, dark greywacke on a statue of the deceased king that was originally erected in his memorial temple courtyard brings an interesting suggestion—that the paint may have been intended to wear away through exposure and, over time, reveal the immortal, black-fleshed “Osiris” Menkaure.

Unusual for a pharaoh’s image, the king has no protective cobra (known as a uraeus) perched on his brow. This notable absence has led to the suggestion that both the king’s nemes and the queen’s wig were originally covered in precious metal and that the cobra would have been part of that addition.

Based on comparison with other images, there is no doubt that this sculpture shows Menkaure, but the identity of the queen is a different matter. She is clearly a royal female. She stands at nearly equal height with the king and, of the two of them, she is the one who is entirely frontal. In fact, it may be that this dyad is focused on the queen as its central figure rather than Menkaure. The prominence of the royal female—at equal height and frontal—in addition to the protective gesture she extends has suggested that, rather than one of Mekaure’s wives, this is actually his queen-mother. The function of the sculpture in any case was to ensure rebirth for the king in the Afterlife.

Editors' Note: Queen Mothers in Africa

The Old Kingdom statue of King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and Queen depicts Menkaure with a regal woman who may be his queen-mother, emphasizing her importance as a central figure in his life, and ensuring his rebirth in the afterlife as well. Later during the Amarna Period, the tiny but heavily-textured and richly-ornamented Portrait Head of Queen Tiye, mother of Akhenaten, also indicates the important, goddess-like status to which he elevated her. Similar depictions and celebrations of queen-mothers are not unique to Egypt, however, and show up much later in African history in 15th-century Benin as well.

Alexander Ives Bortolot describes for the Metropolitan Museum how one historical mother (called an iyoba) of a king (oba) became a celebrated figure in both history and art:

The kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria) was plunged into a state of turmoil at the end of the fifteenth century when the oba (king) Ozolua died and left two powerful sons to dispute succession. His son Esigie controlled Benin City, while another son, Arhuaran, was based in the equally important city of Udo about twenty miles away… Esigie ultimately defeated his brother and conquered the Igala, reestablishing the unity and military strength of the kingdom. His mother Idia received much of the credit for these victories, as her political counsel, together with her mystical powers and medicinal knowledge, were viewed as critical elements of Esigie’s success on the battlefield.

To reward and honor her, Esigie created a new position within the court called the iyoba, or queen mother, which gave her significant political privileges, including a separate residence with its own staff.

As mother of the king, Idia and later iyobas wielded considerable power. Until recent times, the queen mother, who bore the oba’s first son, had no other children and devoted her life to raising the future ruler of the kingdom, a role she was destined to play even before her own birth. Queen mothers were therefore viewed as instrumental to the protection and well-being of the oba and, by extension, the kingdom.

View examples of such tributes to iyobas, or queen mothers, in Queen Mother Pendant Mask, Altar Tableau: Queen Mother and Attendants, and in Head of a Queen Mother. And explore the Yoruba tradition of Gelede that honors the spiritual powers of women elders, known as awon iya wa, or “our mothers.”

---

Mummification

One of the enduringly fascinating aspects of ancient Egyptian society is the preservation of the body after death, an elaborate process known as mummification. The tradition began in the Old Kingdom, if not before, and continued for thousands of years, including the first century AD mummy of Herakleides discussed in the following video.

Online Resource: The Mummification Process

The ancient Egyptian practice of mummification was designed to preserve the body for the afterlife. The process varied by wealth and social status, but generally involved using salt to thoroughly dry the body after removing most internal organs, treating the body with aromatic oils and resins, and wrapping it with strips of linen, sometimes over amulets or other ceremonial objects. The following video details the process used to create the somewhat unusual mummy of Herakleides.

The Getty Museum, "The Mummification Process"

---

Seated Scribe from Saqqara: A CONVERSATION

by Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker

This is the transcript of a conversation conducted at the Musee du Louvre, Paris. Click here to watch the video.

Steven: We’re in the Egyptian Collection in the Louvre, in Paris, and we’re looking at the Seated Scribe. uis goes back to the Old Kingdom.

Beth: So this is more than 4,000, almost 5,000 years old, and what draws people to this relatively small sculpture is how lifelike it is, given how old it is.

Figure \(\PageIndex{23}\): Seated Scribe, c. 4th Dynasty, Old Kingdom, Egypt, c. 2620-2500 BCE. Painted limestone with rock crystal, magnesite, and copper/arsenic inlay for the eyes and wood for the nipples, found in Saqqara. Musee du Louvre, Paris. (Photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Steven: It’s painted, which adds to its lifelike quality.

Beth: And that was not unusual for ancient Egyptian sculpture, although the amount of pigment and coloration that survives here is rather unique.

Steven: With a few exceptions, the sculpture is painted limestone. The exceptions are the nipples, which are wooden dowels, and the eyes.

Beth: The eyes are incredibly lifelike.

Figure \(\PageIndex{24}\): Seated Scribe (detail of face), Saqqara. (Photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Steven: And that’s because they’re made of two different types of stone: crystal, which is polished on the front, and then an organic material is added to the back that functions both as an adhesive but also to color the iris. And there’s also an indentation carved to represent the pupil. All of this comes together to create a sense of alertness, a sense of awareness, a sense of intelligence, that is quite present. It collapses the 4,500 years between when the sculpture was made and today.

Beth: He’s not idealized the way that we would see a figure of a pharaoh—the Egyptians considered pharaohs to be gods and would never have represented the pharaoh in this relaxed, cross-legged position and with the rolls of fat that help make him more human.

Steven: He looks so relaxed, almost like he’s just exhaled.

Beth: That’s true, but there is also a real formality here. He’s very frontal. He’s meant to be seen—pretty much exclusively—from the front and there’s almost a complete symmetry to his body.

Steven: The exception being his hands. His right would have originally held a brush or a pen and his left holds a rolled piece of papyrus that he’s writing on, which is interesting because it suggests the momentary even though the Egyptians are so concerned with the eternal. You said a moment ago that he’s intended to be seen from the front, but that raises an interesting question: Was this sculpture meant to be seen at all?

Beth: Well, he was found in a necropolis southwest of Cairo in a place called Saqqara, an important Old Kingdom necropolis, and we don’t know his exact findspot, so we don’t know as much about him as we would have if we did. But you’re right, this is a funerary sculpture meant for a tomb.

Steven: We would know more about him if the base on which he sits was not cut. It probably would have originally included his name and his titles.

Figure \(\PageIndex{25}\): Seated Scribe (detail of hands), Saqqara. (Photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Beth: What’s interesting is that the hieroglyph for “scribe” is quite pictographic and shows a writing instrument—a pen, a pot of water, and cakes of pigment. Scribes were very highly regarded in Egyptian culture. They were one of the very few people who could read and write. It’s impossible to know how much of a portrait this is because we don’t have this man in front of us, we don’t know the degree to which this sculpture resembles him.

Steven: The sculpture’s been carved with real delicacy. The fingers are long and elegant, the fingernails are carefully inscribed.

Beth: And he has very pronounced high cheekbones.

Steven: The only clothing he wears is a kilt, which has been painted white. His skin is a pretty rich red-brown, and the hair and the rims of his eyes are accentuated with black.

Beth: It is wonderful to have this sculpture reaching out to us from more than 4,000 years ago.

---

Articles in this section:

• Dr. Amy Calvert, "The Great Pyramids of Giza," in Smarthistory, August 8, 2015 (CC BY-NC-SA)
• Dr. Amy Calvert, "Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Sphinx," in Smarthistory, August 8, 2015 (CC BY-NC-SA)
• Dr. Amy Calvert, "King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen," in Smarthistory, August 8, 2015. (CC BY-NC-SA)
• Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, "The Seated Scribe," in Smarthistory, November 25, 2015 (CC BY-NC-SA)