2.1: Introduction

Introduction

Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica ac Hydrographica Tabula (2.1.1) was published in 1630 in Amsterdam. Around the edges are cartouches and illustrations demonstrating Dutch cartography's baroque style, including Mercator, Ptolemy, and Caesar. California is drawn as an island, probably because explorers saw Baja California. The eastern coast of North America had been explored more, and maps were becoming more accurate while the west coast remained a sizeable amorphous mass of land. Asian regions were more detailed as the Dutch traders sailed along the coasts, searching for spices for trade.

By the 1600s, European countries had traveled across the oceans finding new routes and commodities, trying to dominate and control different regions. This became the period of settlements, establishing new communities to expand their territory and power. In North America, ships brought settlers ready to continue their religion and customs, changing the local cultures. Along with people moving to the new lands came extensive agricultural changes to grow new products of tobacco and cotton, moving out the indigenous people, establishing the culture of slavery, and forcing slaves to the new land. In Asia, Europeans brought weapons to help build their trade centers and subdue the local populations.      

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica ac Hydrographica Tabula. Public Domain

 

Europe

Europe had been composed of a plethora of small kingdoms, each one in continual warfare against their neighbors, either territorial or religious. From the strife of the Middle Ages, some monarchs were able to conquer larger territories, enlarging their kingdoms and the concept of absolutism – the monarch has the power of divine right. However, Catholicism had been a major religion, a religious and social schism formed in this period through Protestant sects' rise and nation-states' formation. New scientific concepts developed as education spread beyond the walls of the religious, legal, and medical communities. Old biblical concepts and beliefs like the earth as the center of the universe were challenged, and new ideas were formed, moving from superstition to reasoning and the Scientific Revolution.

Changes were even evident in the dietary shifts of the aristocrats and merchants. "The Renaissance diet included many more spices (loads of them), very few utensils and mix between sweet and savory within dishes and throughout the meal…A Baroque cuisine was much more ordered with a set procession of dishes,"[1] more specialized food preparation and the introduction of new foods like squash, corn, and potatoes from the new worlds. Tea, coffee, and sugar were major new commodities introduced and quickly integrated into all population classes. The concept of tea started as a popular drink with nobility, gaining favor when sugar was imported, and drinking tea laced with sugar was a low-cost source of calories for workers in factories. Tobacco was another new import widely expanding throughout Europe. In 1624, the English imported 200,000 pounds of tobacco from the Jamestown settlement growing to 25,000,000 pounds per year.[2] Unfortunately, the growth of imports of tobacco and sugar lead to the expansion of slavery.

As the exploration of other parts of the world expanded, the concept of mercantilism grew, bringing a new economic structure and the idea of trade balance, exporting more than importing. The Dutch East India company started as a public company, the first mega-corporation as the Netherlands finally escaped domination by Spain to become a maritime power and major trade center. Expanded trade brought the exploitation of goods and resources in newly explored areas of the world. Spain used its superior military force to control much of the Atlantic sea route to Mesoamerica and the vast deposits of gold and silver. England started to expand its naval fleet and exploration of North America. The Islamic world also wanted trade partners and established diplomatic and trade agreements with Portugal, England, Netherlands, and France.

Art was an important part of all trade as each culture was exposed to other places' artwork and creative concepts. The European missionaries' bibles illustration taught artists in India new ideas of spatial recession. The oversized oil paintings from France inspired Iranian leaders to request large portraits of themselves. Middle Eastern designs found in textiles and carpets found their way into European designs. The extravagant ornamentation of Versailles was seen in mosques and palaces.

India  

India was ruled by the Mughals, who consolidated multiple smaller regions and developed a government respecting human rights. The Mughal Empire was based on the previous Mongol rulers, creating a culture based on Persian and Asian ideals, a Muslim-ruled country inhabited by a Hindu majority. Although they maintained the military proficiencies of their Mongol ancestors, they created an environment of religious tolerance and support for human rights. The first ruler in the 16^th century allowed the construction of Hindu temples, even forbidding cows to be killed, a practice offensive to the Hindu population. The successive rulers maintained Islam as the official religion while still tolerating Hindus and other beliefs. The Rajput emerged from a loose association of clans and settlements, which developed into a highly structured group based on inherited positions. Under the Mughal rule, they were accepted as feudatories and developed a governmental and social structure based on kinship and genealogical links.  

The English and Dutch both wanted into the lucrative trade market of India and across Asia. In 1600, the fledgling East India Company came to India and received the rights for trade. Portugal had initially controlled the routes, losing in a fight with the English. The Mughal court gave England the right to trade and construct factories, trading through the establishments. The English used concepts of bulk trade instead of high-cost goods, giving them the trading and profit lead. The Indian government wanted silver as payment, forcing the English to establish multiple trading partners to obtain enough silver. In the later part of the 1600s, the French joined in the trade along with the Dutch and Portuguese, generating control conflicts with each other and the Mughals, Marathas (Hindus), and other local ruling factions, leading eventually to the expansion and control of India by the English in the early 1800s. 

Art in the Mughal period became a part of how rulers identified themselves, and adoration of the arts and their artistic qualities, and visual significance. The elegance of the architecture and colorful paintings was supported by importing Persian masters to help propagate esthetic and design principles. The artists came because the emperors held astonishing wealth and influence, not necessarily good taste. Illustrated books and albums displaying portraits, animals, paintings, and calligraphy elaborately bordered with gold and leather became one of the primary art forms of the period. The Rajput painting was focused on their ruling courts and had distinct styles depending on the location of the court.    

China

China experienced a tremendous growth period. When China conquered Tibet and Central Asia, the population increased to 450 million people. The country spread over a territory three times the previous dynasty with millions of non-Chinese minorities. The Qing Dynasty started when the Manchu invaded and controlled the government and formed the last imperial dynasties, reigning for almost 300 years. With the extraordinarily immense country, they developed unified transportation, river systems, and massive inter-regional trade. Manufacturing and factories were moved to where natural resources were or plentiful labor. Unlike European states, the state did not control much of the commerce highly managed by the royal throne. They developed interrelated links of village goods to regional markets to the export trade.

Portugal had come to China in the 1550s and established themselves as trade partners, the shipping fleet between China and Europe. The Spanish occupied the Philippines and used silver from their new regions in the Americas as a significant commodity for trade. Along with the Portuguese and Spanish came the Catholic missionaries and conflicts within the different missionary groups about Chinese beliefs. By 1800, the continued intrusions and military might of the Europeans began to affect the order in China, leading to a weakening of the government. The tax rate had been kept exceptionally low during the dynasty based on the Confucian concept of a fiscal-economic policy of little taxation or government manipulation of the economy, furthering the demise of the government.

Art flourished during the Qing Dynasty under the patronage of the emperors, especially painting, calligraphy, and porcelain. Confucian principles formed the traditions, and artists flourished in the courts as part of the elite. Calligraphy and painting were intermixed, each critical, following two paths, those from the more orthodox, traditional beliefs and those who became individualists, following their ideals. Porcelain was a significant force in this period; royal and traditional standards dictated every color, use, shape, and style. Specialty items were made for the royal household, and porcelain colors were specified for each level of society.

Korea

Korea is located by several contentious, large countries, including Russia, China, and Japan, forcing Korea into diplomatic solutions to maintain their own culture and independence. The Korean proverb, "When whales fight, the shrimp's back is broken,"[3]  grew from their tenuous position; however, they were able to preserve their kingdoms and independence. Early kings in the Joseon dynasty fostered the growth of scholars, developed an alphabet, and built a government administration. The Koreans overcame an incursion by Japan at the end of the 16^th century and the Manchus early in the 17^th century. From 1600 to the late 1800s, Korea set up diplomatic missions with China and a few ceremonial events with Japan, allowing very few foreigners to enter the country, obtaining the nickname of 'Hermit Kingdom.' They were able to live in isolation and peace for over 250 years. During this period, they focused on scholarly Confucian ideals, shunning military activities. Even though Confucianism was the dominant religious belief, Buddhism and Daoism were accepted and frequently interwoven into all the cultural ideas.

Contact with Europeans occurred when a Dutch ship became shipwrecked on one of the Korean islands, the Koreans rescued three crewmen. The three taught the Koreans about weapons and military standards in Europe. Contacts with China also educated them about Europeans and their culture. However, the Koreans maintained their isolation, a slowly growing economy, with excessive tax and government control based on Confucian values.

The king supported art, and court artists produced exquisite work made from gold, silk, and other exceptional materials. The symbols of longevity were frequently an essential part of the artwork; ceramics, paintings, furniture, and others. The symbols were based on concepts from nature; trees, deer, clouds, the sun, turtle, water, cranes, mushrooms, bamboo, and mountains, each with specific, defined meanings for the symbols. The concept of folk art, ordinary people painting their interpretations of longevity, grew across the country, bringing art into homes.  

North American

North American populations were as dissimilar as the populations on other large continents, their diversity, and numbers unknown to explorers who initially only encountered those along coastal regions. Historians estimate about 150 different societies or tribes lived across the continent, each with diverse languages, characteristics, clothing, artworks, food, and cultures. Most of the information about different indigenous groups was based on artifacts, oral stories based along with generations, or recorded by Europeans who settled in other regions.

Interactions between the European traders and settlers depended on the country they came from and why they were in North America. The primary goal of Europeans was an economic gain from the natural resources of furs, metals, and wood, the enslavement of indigenous populations to grow crops like tobacco and sugar, and the expansion of territory. The secondary goal was religious, finding their religious freedom or converting the native peoples to Christianity. The conflicts of warfare and the introduction of diseases to a population without immunity decimated the people, some estimates over 90%, eliminated some tribes, and interrupted traditional lifestyles and societies.

At first, the Europeans were welcomed, soon coming into conflict over societal values. The English started to establish settlements along the east coast, coming into conflict with the Native Americans' belief that no one owned the land. As the ships came loaded with settlers, they built on land, believing they now owned it; more and more land was required as the ships arrived, continually moving into native territories. The French focused on the fur-rich areas of Canada, trading guns for furs, and arming some tribes to gain control of the fur trade. Some tribes found themselves well-armed and able to attack others, changing the relationships between tribes. The Spanish came from Mexico into the southern regions, looking to find additional wealth like gold and convert the indigenous population to Catholicism. Their large number of heavily armed troops quickly overwhelmed the native populations, forcing religious conversion through stringent controls and punishment. Other European countries tried to gain footholds on the continent and were only marginally successful. By the end of the 17^th century, waves of people came to the continent, including the slaves' expansion from the African slave trade.

Art was a standard function across all the indigenous societies, varying the types, and styles based on the materials found in the local areas or through trade with other groups. As Europeans started settling in different places, the local tribes traded for new and different materials. Generally, the artwork is arranged into two categories; work before 1600 and European influence and materials, and work after 1600. The art from Native tribes is frequently labeled 'primitive' just because the work was not the same as the perception of proper European style. The art was also forcibly taken, destroying cultural and religious artifacts. Art was not considered an occupation or separate thing; a person might be recognized for expertise in an artistic endeavor as a beautifully woven basket or decorative object.  

Art Methods

Light and Dark of Baroque

Baroque painting was defined by dramatic images of incredible depth from new techniques of chiaroscuro, tenebrism, and sfumato – all methods to manipulate light and dark. Chiaroscuro combined the Italian chiaro, meaning light or defined, and scuro, dark or ambiguous. Artists used light contrasting against dark shadows to develop three-dimensional figures. Tenebrism brought even more dramatic use of light and dark, with darkness almost the dominant focus of the painting, most of the images hidden with little illumination. Parts of the hands or faces were the major elements illuminated against the contrast of an exceptionally dark setting, creating vivid and emotional scenes. Originally, religious scenes were the principal use of chiaroscuro; the light was used to illuminate the divinity of Christ. Other artists expanded the concept using shafts of light shining from an unknown source to light elements of the otherwise dark and foreboding scene. Some artists used a visible candle to provide the light and its reflection off the figures. The extreme dark depth of tenebrism brought even more drama.

Because the paintings were made with very dark colors, the method used to apply the underpainting was different. Most artists used middle or dark tones for the base instead of light colors. Colors were applied in thin layers of glazes to build the underpainting, the dark colors requiring many layers to achieve the dimensional effects. "Highlighted areas are very thin and fine. Color applied in thin glazes tends to be clear, luminous, and devoid of brush marks. Shadows and dark colors, however, appear as thickly as built-up surfaces, creating ridges clearly visible in raking light where they come into contact with the delicate light areas."[4] Artists frequently used heavy white impasto paint on the areas to be highlighted, then added dark washes, building layers as needed. Dark heavy brushstrokes in some spaces helped create a sense of tension or movement.

Faces in the Dutch Golden Age

The concept of facial images has existed for centuries as the faces of rulers appeared on coins or the official statuary. The idea of self-images returned during the Renaissance as patrons of the arts wanted their images captured on canvas. During the Baroque period, especially in the Netherlands region, half-or three-quarters of views of the face were popular. The new merchant class commissioned their likeness to display at home while organizations procured group portraits.

The position of a light source became essential to properly illuminate the face and give it character. With the manufacture of cheaper and more reflective mirrors, many artists tried to create self-portraits. The artist was able to display their image and the style and techniques of their paintings.  Sometimes the artist simply painted themselves and other times inserted their image into a scene. Rembrandt was the most prolific painter of self-portraits, with over forty paintings plus etchings and prints. He started when he was young and continued throughout his life, reflecting his painting characteristics, life, and economic state based on his clothing in each iteration. 

Painting a portrait or self-portrait is complex; the proportions of the face are similar from person to person, yet different. Several unique proportional assumptions are used to paint a face correctly. A person's eyes and ears are generally positioned halfway down the head, and the head is about five eyes wide. The edge of the nose is in line with the tear ducts found in the corner of the eyes. The space between a person's eyes is as wide as the eyes to align the eyes correctly. For most people, the corners of the mouth are in line with the pupils in the eyes. 

Illumination is an integral part of painting a portrait, where the light originates, how light reflects on the face, where shadows are formed, and how color fluctuates based on light. The light was an essential part of painting a portrait, and the artist must define the shadows based on the position of the head. The artist must determine what they are going to emphasize, what type of lighting will highlight the right parts of the figure, and the direction of the light. Key lighting is generally the first consideration, with light shining directly on the face as the major illumination point. Fill light is positioned at an angle to balance shaded areas, while the rear light is angled from behind to produce contours or form an outline around the head. The artist also needs to decide how to highlight the background to create a shadow by the head.

Still Life in the Dutch Golden Age – Still life

As cities in the Netherlands expanded trade, growing the wealthy merchant class and urbanizing the cities, the desire for still life painting grew, painting new commodities and imports, displaying unusual flowers, foods, or objects, all part of the growing trade. Early works focused on domestic products (butter, cheese, herring, beer), soon expanding to include other European products (bread, lemons, oranges, figs, raisins, hazelnuts, and wine). As the Dutch East India Company expanded across the oceans, still life work was structured to include the new exotic products (pepper, spices, tea, salt, tobacco, and porcelain).[5] The still-life paintings illustrate the vast collection of products the Dutch imported and how they displayed their ability to indulge in the products. Still life was seldom commissioned, leaving the artists free to select their arrangements and sell them on the open market.  

Floral still life painted in oils was a popular arrangement, frequently combining herbs, flowers, and other plant exotics in an elegant vase or bowl. Each petal, stem, or berry is painted with extensive detail, a drop of dew perched on a leaf or a flower slowly dying and drooping over the vase. The artists used deeply contrasting dark and light to highlight unique colors and flower elements. To achieve the finely detained results, artists used small brushes, sometimes with just a few hairs.

The concept of a feast or exotic foods became the subject of most still-life artists. The colors and tones of the items were significant; a white or neutral tablecloth might provide the background for the rest of the painting, and glass or metals like silver or pewter vases, bowls, or plates added to the neutrality letting the pile of oranges or the blushing peach shine. The materials used in a painting were carefully prepared. Each specimen was individually arranged on the table to define each element optimally; a bug sitting on the leaf, a basket of lemons appearing to roll away, or the detailed skin of a melon. Harmony and perspective in the composition were significant; do the grapes appear in the foreground or background, are they hanging or laying, what direction is the fish laying, and does the eye show or is the fish hanging. Everything was thoughtfully placed.

Miniatures of the Mughal and Rajput

When the emperor Akbar died, he was succeeded by his son Jahangir who was very interested in the arts. He continued the focus on miniature paintings, commissioning multiple books to illustrate his reign. The paintings included a wide variety of topics, court scenes, individual portraits, or battles. The works were painted on two different types of paper, a rough paper made with fibrous particles, burnished to become smooth, and a white paper created from a more refined pulp. Generally, the artist used charcoal or ink to draw the original outlines and then brushed an opaque layer of a light color – white, off white, or blue, the outlines still visible. Other layers were added, and the paper burnished in-between layers of paint. The final layers reflected the critical images of the design, the human or animal figures. One of the last steps was outlining the significant design elements.

While working, the artists sat in front of low tables or placed a board on their lap. The completed paintings were wrapped in cotton fabric to protect them from insects and the elements. Initially, during the beginning of a painting, a team of artists worked and divided the activities bringing the specialist in towards the end; later individual artists produced most of the work. The Mughal court was the dominant entity, and the artists' names are known; however, the artists in the Rajput court were mainly unknown. Political coalitions between the two regions brought artists into contact and influenced each other.   

Color in the Qing Dynasty

Each ruling dynasty selected a representational color from the Five Elements Theory; colors are part of Chinese concepts of natural laws and how universal order is part of the world. The elements and colors are related to the body, seasons, climate, medicine, astrology, and other interactive concepts:

Color:

• Black
• Red
• Yellow
• White
• Qing (blue or green)

Element:

• Water
• Fire
• Earth
• Metal
• Wood

During the Ming Dynasty, red was the official color. Initially, when the Manchu started the Qing Dynasty, they did not declare an official color. The ruling Manchu had divided their systems identifiable by eight colored banners of white, red, yellow, and blue as solid colors or borders. The sovereign flag appeared as a blue dragon placed on a yellow background making yellow the official de facto color.[6]  Yellow symbolized the earth and was considered an esteemed color, often reserved as the emperors' color, decorating palaces, temples, and clothing worn by the emperors. Historians believe the importance of yellow grew from the color of the sun and the sky only has one sun. Therefore, a nation can only have one emperor, and yellow represents the exclusivity of one person. During the Qing Dynasty, a very detailed document specified by rank, who wore yellow; bright yellow robes were reserved for the emperor and empress, apricot yellow for the crowned princes, and golden yellow for lesser princes. Lower-ranked members of the court wore different shades of blue. Even recipes for special dyes were recorded; the bright yellow dye for the emperor's robes came from a pagoda but an alum. The other colors also used defined plants and methods for dying material.

Red, associated with fire, represented good fortune and color used in celebratory settings, while black was a neutral color and was selected by many emperors as their color. Black was part of the harmony of yin and yang. White is associated with metal and is also the color of mourning and death. Qing usually meant green; however, it might also be assumed to be blue and occasionally black. Qing refers to nature, the grass or mountains, and is correlated with prosperity and harmony.

Color in paintings differed from European style painting. Chinese artists used a brush and rice paper with colors made from natural materials. The traditional colors were developed from three materials; mineral pigments, plant pigments, and gold or silver, all bringing a wide range of colors for the artist to mix and combine. Dynasties preceding the Ming and Qing periods used colors, and individually developed into multiple types of artwork. With the advent of the Ming and Qing periods, color became industrialized, and new demands from an increased population, new techniques to make paint, and specialized colors all led to factories producing pigment for artists to purchase instead of making it themselves. Foreign colors also were imported and began to affect the way painters worked.

Using ink also became prominent after the Song Dynasty, developing into 'ink color,' a process based on the type of ink, the water, which brush, or other variables. The ink colors were added to the techniques and systems of paint colors, and ink was incorporated into the artists' colorful images.

Paper in the Joseon Dynasty

Hanji is a traditional Korean paper found in tombs dating to the 6^th century. During the Joseon Dynasty, paper became ubiquitous in daily life, used for books, fans, simulated flowers, and other decorations. The paper was made from a combination of bark from the dak tree (paper mulberry), a native tree growing in the mountains, and the roots of the Hibiscus Manihot (flowering plant). The bark was boiled in water, then skinned and pounded; the slimy mucus from the root of the hibiscus is applied to the bark and formed into sheets pressed out to dry. The process is complex and time-consuming, and the perfect Hanji is highly respected.

The paper is durable and long-lasting. Researchers discovered the bark of the mulberry tree had a pH level of 7 instead of the usual pH level of 4 or 5 found in most papers, a level that caused them to disintegrate quickly. Most of Korea's ancient information and records were preserved because of the incredibly tough paper used for documents. Although Buddhist monks traditionally made most of the paper in Korea, in the Joseon period, the government even produced paper, including paper armor, for troops. 

Porcupine Quills in Native Americans

The use of porcupine quills for artwork is unique to the North American native population. Before the glass beads from Europe, the quills were a natural and plentiful resource for decorative elements. The quills from the porcupine were usually white with black tips; the tips were clipped off. An individual quill was almost three inches, and they were dyed with natural dyes. Quills were softened, becoming malleable and able to be bent or flattened into different shapes. Each quill might be used as a bead and appliqued or embroidered onto a surface with sinew or, later, thread traded from Europe. Quills were usually added to leggings, shirts, headbands, moccasins, breechclouts, or other personal items and are still an art form used today.  

Fur and Hide in Native Americans

Moose hair was used in the northeast; the hairs were collected in the fall, tied into bundles, and saved to decorate buckskin clothing. Initially, the hairs were attached with sinew using an awl, later replaced by a needle and thread. Different dyes were used, although red, green, blue, and white are the standard colors. Embroidering the moose hair was a woman's occupation. She starts "by choosing from a bunch of bristles a small quantity having the desired shade and transferring them to her mouth. From the mouth, they are again transferred, 4 to 6 together, to the buckskin and stitched down with thread at intervals of about one-sixteenth of an inch."[7] When the hairs were sewn, another set is joined to form the pattern.

Animal hides were an important source of natural material for most Native Americans. Different types of hides became moccasins, robes, leggings, or other clothing and articles. The skins had to be tanned–treated. A hide was soaked, draped over a pole, and scraped, removing the excess flesh and hair, then stretching it on poles to dry. After the skin dries in a few days, the hide is thoroughly scraped, continuing to soften the hide, then rinsed and dried again.  

 

 

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[1] Retrieved from https://news.stanford.edu/news/2012/march/17th-century-dining-032312.html

[2] Retrieved from https://www.lib.umn.edu/bell/tradeproducts/tobacco

[3] Meider, W., Dundes, A. (1994). The Wisdom of Many: Essays on the Proverb, University of Wisconsin Press, p. 301.

[4] Barrett, S., Stulik, D., (1995). An Integrated Approach for the Study of Painting Techniques, Historical Painting Techniques, Materials, and Studio Practice, The Getty Conservation Institute, p. 8.

[5] Hochstrasser, J. B. (2007). Still Life and Trade in the Dutch Golden Age, Yale University Press.

[6] Gao, J., Official Colours of Chinese Regimes: A Panchronic Philological Study with Historical Accounts of China, A Journal of the Humanities & Social Sciences. 2012, Vol. 16 Issue 3, pp. 272-273.

[7] Speck, F. (1911). Huron Moose Hair Embroidery. American Anthropologist, 13(1), new series, 1-14. Retrieved March 26, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/659805