12.1: Democracy Thwarted in the Middle East - Iran in the 1970s

Iran before the Revolution 

The volatile price of oil in the 1970s hit Iran hard and ushered in a theocratic revolution. However, Iran was caught up in both the democratic wave and the conservative religious wave simultaneously. One of the reasons that the democratic wave receded had to do with the fact that  Iran was the site of a major Cold War hotspot.  For the most part, Iran was an authoritarian state with an underdeveloped and vulnerable economy that depended on oil exports. Iran emerged from World War II at best a semi-democracy.  The 1905 Constitution created a constitutional monarchy with universal male suffrage. However, the landowning notables controlled the national legislature and the cabinet because they controlled elections. Shiism was declared the official religion. Iran was headed by a monarchy known as a Shah who was from the Pahlavi dynasty. This government was unresponsive to the vast majority of impoverished Iranians. The proximity of Iran to Russia facilitated the growth of radical socialist political parties.  In the 1940s, many Iranian intellectuals aligned themselves with the Iranian Communist Party, known as the Tudeh Party. Overall, Tudeh drew support from large numbers of workers in the new state-sponsored industries especially in oil production.

The rhetoric of the Allies during World War II spread and popularized democracy. The younger Iranian-educated middle class supported democracy and challenged the power of the Shah. They did not, however, attack religion and sought a broad anti-oligarchic front. These middle-class reformers also supported greater women’s rights including the right to vote. At this time, more Iranians were becoming nationalistic and wanted national control of the British oil wells.  Their leader became Mohammed Mosaddegh who led the National Front which was socialistic and nationalist but was not communist. Instead, the National Front promoted a mixed economy and democratization.

Mosaddegh became prime minister in 1952 and decided to nationalize the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (now British Petroleum (BP)). Then, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill convinced the US government that Mosaddegh had to go to ensure a steady flow of oil out of Iran. The US also feared that the Communist Party was gaining too much popularity in Iran and the Iranian government did nothing to combat this. In 1953 Britain’s MI-6 and the CIA organized a coup against the elected government of Iran and installed the Shah, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, as an absolute monarch although puppet democratic institutions remained in place.

For the most part, the 1953 coup undermined the legitimacy of the monarchy because it identified the Shah with the British and the US. The coup also destroyed all real secular democratic opposition to the USA and the Shah. The new opposition would not support liberalism, nationalism, and socialism. Rather, it would support Islamic fundamentalism and theocracy. The government closed down pro-democracy newspapers and over 2,000 people were arrested by the end of the year. All elections for the national legislature were fixed so that pro-Shah candidates won. The Shah’s secret police force, SAVAK, terrorized the population and assassinated critics of the Shah.

However, Iran was vulnerable both economically and politically. The government was dependent upon one product, oil. The Shah upset fundamentalist Muslims when he began a policy of embracing western culture. Women gained the right to vote, run for office, and serve as judges.  The use of the veil was never banned but it was discouraged.  The government also expanded birth control clinics and legalized abortion. Wives had the right to petition for divorce and they could work outside the home without permission from their husbands.  However, much of the modern middle class rejected the Shah as they continued to support nationalism, liberalism, and socialism.  In figure 12.1.1, President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy attend a dinner in their honor, given by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Emperor of Iran, and his wife, Empress Farah Pahlavi. The Shah and his wife are dressed in the same clothing style as the US president and first lady. Why would more religious Iranians be upset by this picture?

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Dinner in Honor of John F. Kennedy in Iran by Cecil W. Stroughton, JFK Library, in the Public Domain

Poverty remained a major problem in Iran and the Shah never overcame Iran’s dependence on oil. By 1976, the price of oil plummeted when OPEC increased oil production. Since Iran was heavily dependent on imports, shortages and high inflation resulted. The government then sought to reduce inflation by cutting spending which resulted in massive layoffs and higher unemployment. This policy harmed the middle class because many of them depended on government employment. So, not only were peasants and urban workers upset, but the middle class increasingly opposed the Shah as well.

The new leader of the opposition to the Shah was Ruhollah Khomeini (known as Ayatollah Khomeini). He denounced corruption, the rigging of elections, the violations of civil liberties, and neglect of the poor.  Khomeini argued that the Shah was just a puppet of the West. According to Khomeini, the Shah misruled the country with policies that only favored the rich. Although he was not a Communist, Khomeini denounced capitalism and sought to improve the lives of the poor. Khomeini was critical of the Shah for hampering democratic government, but he wanted a theocracy where clerics had the ultimate authority to rule the government. However, he did not emphasize this at first.  Khomeini was living in exile in Paris but thousands if not millions of Iranians were listening to his message. Khomeini recorded his speeches on cassette tapes.  His supporters would then make copies and distribute these recordings throughout the country.

The Overthrow of the Shah 

Beginning in 1977, the US pressured the Shah to respect human rights. So, he relaxed some of his most stringent controls, because the Iranian government really believed that it had popular support. Another National Front was then formed demanding the abdication of the Shah.  This front consisted of middle-class liberals, clerics, and communists. The civil servants and oil workers then joined the protestors and went on strike. They all wanted civil rights, free and fair elections, and the return of Khomeini. The clerics were the most powerful group in this front, because the liberals and communists had been badly weakened by the Shah’s oppressive policies. While in exile in Paris, Khomeini assured liberal nationalists that he supported a democratic government with only a supervisory role for the clergy. Therefore, the secular liberals believed that once the Shah was overthrown, Khomeini would step back from politics. By November 1978, most of the country was on strike.  Airports, railways, banks, some newspapers, and the oil industry were all shut down. This brought the economy to a standstill. The Shah was also ill with cancer. In 1979, the Shah abandoned Iran, eventually arriving for treatment in the United States, while Khomeini proclaimed a new Islamic Republic.

It was unclear at first, what was going to occur in Iran. The Shah abdicated but he put Shapur Bakhtiar, who was a liberal, in charge as prime minister.  By 1979, a group of clerics had formed the Council of the Islamic Revolution (CIR) which directed how a new government would be established. This council set up a provisional government to supplant that of Shapur Bakhtiar. Khomeini would not recognize Bakhitar, because he was appointed by the Shah. Liberals allied with Khomeini also refused to recognize him. Nevertheless, Bakhtiar allowed Khomeini to return. Iran was in chaos in January 1979. Police were absent, students were directing traffic, and mosques were distributing food.

Khomeini had the upper hand as the CIR set up local revolutionary committees (komiteh) and revolutionary courts all over the country to fill the power vacuum. When Khomeini returned on 1 February 1979, he appointed Mehdi Bazargan as his prime minister. Bazargan, like Bakhtiar, was a secular liberal who supported democracy in Iran. So, there were two governments in Iran. One headed by Bakhtiar and one headed by Bazargan.  Khomeini did not work with left-wing radicals and communists but sought an alliance with secular liberals. Most Iranians expected some form of democratic secular government. The big question was where did the Iranian military stand? For the most part, the armed forces were divided.  Once the Shah left, the army began to disintegrate. There were 1300 desertions a day by the second week of February. Many officers resigned after the Shah abdicated while others supported Khomeini. When the generals met, they decided not to support Bakhtiar. This decision gave control of the military over to Khomeini and his supporters.

The Shah had been overthrown but the national government had broken down. There was a provisional government headed by a liberal. However, in reality, the local komitehs had taken control, like the Soviets in Russia in 1917–18. Khomeini set up these committees all over the country which enforced the laws and ran the local government. The first major task was to draw up a new constitution. So, elections were held on 3 August to choose delegates to draft a new constitution and these delegates first convened on 18 August. Fifty-five out of seventy-three of the elected members of the assembly were clerics.

Theocracy in Iran 

A new constitution was drafted which handed power over to the clerics and then a referendum was held to approve of this draft. Secular liberals who had been marginalized, boycotted this election. The referendum to establish an Islamic Republic was most likely rigged and this constitution was approved with 99% of the vote. Khomeini was made Supreme Leader for life. He determined candidates for the presidency, controlled the army, and could dismiss presidents. The cleric-controlled Guardian Council could veto bills passed by the legislature and determined who could run for office. All adults, including women, could vote in secret and there were direct elections. Basic civil liberties were guaranteed such as freedom of the press and freedom from arbitrary arrest. In reality, anything which the government felt was contrary to Islam could be censored.

This new regime was an authoritarian theocracy, but steps were taken to address the needs of the impoverished. The government could rely on wealth from oil which it used to reduce poverty. The new constitution provided for decent housing, pensions, medical care, and free primary and secondary education. Working conditions improved for the urban working classes. They had minimum wages and maximum hours. In the countryside, schools were built, land was redistributed, and the government extended electricity, roads, healthcare,  and indoor plumbing. Farmers for the first time could purchase consumer goods like TVs. Also, life expectancy increased from 56 in 1980 to 70 by 2000. For the most part, the elites fled Iran, and their businesses were nationalized. The government then controlled more than 2000 factories. However, the government was not communist and sought to protect private property.

Life improved for most Iranians, but this new regime was every bit as autocratic as the Shah.  The government instilled fear in the population as it arbitrarily arrested and killed thousands of people. Many were liberals and socialists who had participated in the overthrow of the Shah.  In addition to censoring the press, the elections were rigged because they had results where the government-approved candidate would win over 90 percent of the vote. The regime allowed for females to marry at 13 and removed women from the courts and the education system. Women were encouraged to wear the full chadour but at the very least they had to wear scarves and long coats.

Many of those who participated in the overthrow of the Shah hated the U.S. Government because it supported his absolute rule.  In November 1979, radical students stormed the American Embassy in Tehran and took the staff as hostages. These Americans were held for 444 days and were not released until Ronald Reagan took office as president in January 1981.  Ronald Reagan’s election campaign negotiated secretly with the Iranians, because they wanted to delay the hostages’ release until after Reagan had won the election. In return, Reagan would provide Iranians essential supplies. The early release of these hostages would have increased the popularity of Jimmy Carter in the USA and harmed Reagan’s chances of winning the presidency.

Review Questions

• What factors led to the overthrow of the Shah?
• How did Iran become a theocracy?