Index

access: appearance of, 4, 40, 149, 152; to education, 46, 47, 76, 194; internet, xiii, 4, 152, 180, 181, 195; limitations, 1, 104, 105, 139, 143, 154, 195, 199–201, 210–11; mediated, 2–3, 7, 54, 59, 97, 111, 143, 150, 153, 158, 167, 236; music industry, 181–90, 199–201; and visibility, 7, 54, 66, 98–99, 118, 159–60, 226

Afghanistan, 232–33

Africa: Africa Music Project, 198; appropriation from, 155–60, 167–68; and blues origins, 69–75, 72, 73; Cameroon, 72, 73; Cold War interventions in, 129, 130; copyright in, 149, 198–99, 226, 227; diasporic music of, 17, 70, 72–75; Ghana, 10; hip-hop in, 150, 220–27, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226–28, 239; Morocco, 223–24, 224; music industry in, 97, 198–99, 226; and nonaligned movement, 138; pan-Africanism, 165, 220–21; perceptions of, 151, 157–58; popular music, 10, 156–57, 192; Senegal, 70, 198, 226; Shona, 163; and slave trade, 68, 69; solo song traditions, 72–74, 72, 73; South Africa, 155–57, 156, 192, 221–23, 222, 223; US musicians’ travel to, 164; World Bank and, 198–99

African Americans: appropriation from, 75–80, 111, 221–28, 233; assimilation, 90–92; blues, 71–80; civil rights of, 137–38, 171, 220–21; as diaspora, 17, 69; in Euro-American classical music, 88–89, 90–92, 149, 164–67, 175–78; Fisk Jubilee Singers, 86–89, 87, 88; instruments, 70; recognition of, 79, 220, 227–28; spirituals, 80–92; stereotypes of, 76–77; turntablism and, 111, 111–12; in US diplomacy, 135, 220

al-Rashidi, Mahmoud, 97

Anderson, Benedict, 120–21, 195, 230

Appadurai, Arjun, vii, 7, 150, 230, 231–32, 236

Appiah, Kwame Anthony, 80, 147, 203–4, 227, 236, 238, 239

Apple, xiii, 95, 188

Apple Music, 95

appropriation: and assimilation, 44–50, 86, 179; definition, 75–76, 205; of African music, 155–60, 162–63, 164, 167–68; of African American music, 75–80, 111, 221–28, 233; of blues, 75–80; of folk music, 102–4; of Chinese music, 162–64, 164, 167–68; of hip-hop, 111, 221–28, 233; of Indian music, 160–62, 161, 171–75; of Indonesian music, 30–33, 167–78, 169; and inequality, 33, 55, 61, 75–80, 159–60, 236–37; and mediation, 11, 61, 76, 78, 91, 102–6, 149, 155–59; in music of mixed styles, 55–62, 149, 155–60, 178, 205; in world beat, 154, 159, 226

Arab music: dance music, 97; rap, 223–26, 224, 225; song, 73–74, 73

archives: and cultural appropriation, 103–6; and nation, 102–3, 195–96; and preservation, 99–103; re-use of, 93, 109, 178

Page 294 →arranging, 86–92, 103, 115–16, 165–66

Asia: appropriation from, 30–33, 160–64, 161, 164, 167–75, 169; in Cold War, 115–16, 128, 129, 130, 137, 138, 163; and colonialism 16, 19–20, 21, 25, 42, 137, 138; copyright in, 149; diaspora, 205–9; ethnicity in, 22; Hong Kong, 141, 210; India, Carnatic music, 171–73, 172, 173; India, colonialism 16, 19, 21; India, Hindustani music, 160–62, 161; India, as nation-state, 121, 129; India, record industry, 97; India, Romani origins in, 43–44, 49; in international exchanges, 19, 135, 151; Japan, in Cold War, 208; Japan, colonialism, 20, 129, 206; Japan, modernization, 122–24, 127–28; Japan, music industry, 182, 185, 186–87, 191, 193, 200–201; missionaries in, 122–23; modernization projects, 36, 93, 102–3, 122–28, 214–15; national ensembles, 115–16; nonaligned movement, 138; North Korea, 208; perceptions of, 30, 123, 151, 164, 170, 209–10; socialist realism, 140; music industry in, 96–98, 200–201; rock in, 139–44, 141; South Korea (Republic of Korea), 129, 150, 162–63, 164, 204, 205–19; tourism, 33–40, 216, 217–18; Western classical music in, 25, 26, 208–13, 212, 213; in world beat music, 117–18; at Universal Exposition of 1889, 27–31

Asian Americans, 3, 144, 150, 162, 204, 205–13, 207, 216–19, 218

assimilation: African Americans and, 85–92, 153, 220–21; definition, 46; and education, 89–90, 109, 166, 232; Korean Americans and, 204, 207, 213, nation-states and, 105–6; mixed musics and, 119, 178; Roma and, 44–45

authenticity: advertised, 115–16, 212–13; definition, 77–79; and essentialism, 79–80; and folk music, 32, 79, 102–3, 115–19, 152; illusion of, 109–10, 115–19; of indigenous people, 32, 109–10; and invented traditions, 38, 103, 116; and mediation, 153; and modernity, 152, 205, 245n39; and musical mixing, 109–10, 118–19; and “purity,” 50, 77, 213, 236; and recording, 106–10; and reification, 78–79

Bach, Johann Sebastian, 127, 176

Bali, 33–40, 34, 35. See also Indonesia

Ballet Folklórico de México, 145, 146, 203

Baraka, Amiri, 79–80

Bartók, Béla, 102, 259n22

Bechet, Sidney, 107

Benary, Barbara, 149, 168–71, 169, 170, 178, 179

Black Madonna (Marea Stamper), 112–13, 113

Blakrok, Yugen, 221–23, 222, 223

blending. See mixing

Bloechl, Olivia, 239–40

blues, 71–80, 71, 73, 166, 177

Bonds, Margaret, 91–92, 92

Bonnette, Lakeyta, 219

borders: corporations and, 4–5, 197–98, 231; movable, 14, 242n14; pushing/pulling music across, 6, 15, 93, 120–22, 128, 144. See also boundaries

borrowing. See appropriation

Boulez, Pierre, 132–33, 133, 160, 166

Boulton, Laura, 105–6, 106, 231

boundaries: between groups, 7–10, 76, 78, 90, 150, 153, 203, 205, 210–11, 229, 232–33; between individuals, 113; between traditions, 9, 76, 114, 211; between types of music, 11, 90, 114, 211–12. See also borders

Brahms, Johannes, 56, 59, 60, 61

brand: national, 5, 146, 203; personal, 167, 212–13

Braxton, Anthony, 174

Brazil, 149, 192–96, 192, 199–200

British Invasion, 75–77

broadcasting, 6, 202; and censorship, 93, 138; and copyright, 185; and modernization, 103; by nation-states, 93, 103, 135; as propaganda, 93, 128, 138–39

Bryan, Courtney, 149, 175, 175–79, 177

Bulgaria, 114–19, 115, 116, 118

Burleigh, Harry T., 88, 90

Page 295 →Calhoun, Craig, 235–36, 238

call and response: in blues, 71; in spiritual singing, 82, 83, 84, 85

Cameroon, 72, 73

camp meetings, 81, 82, 84, 85

Canada, 16, 138, 206

Canclini, Nestór García, 150, 178, 204–5, 209, 211, 218–19, 227, 236–37, 239–40

canon, 210–11, 234–35

Cantopop, 141–42

Caribbean, 20, 129, 130

Caribbean Americans, 111

Carnatic music, 172, 173

cassette tape, xiii, 6, 131, 140, 142, 155, 180, 183, 186

censorship, 67, 93, 131–32, 137–39, 140–44, 193, 226

Chang, Sarah, 209–10

China: appropriation from, 26, 162–64, 164; censorship, 93, 140–44; in Cold War, 129, 130, 163, 208; international trade, 19, 140; interventions abroad, 130; record industry, 96–97; rock and pop, 3, 139–44, 141; socialist realism, 140; unofficial music, 131, 139–44

Chinese Americans, 3, 144, 162

Chinese Indonesians, 22, 37

choral music: chorale, 126, 127; folk-like, 114–18, 115, 118, 134; in international exchange, 135, 206; kecak, 33–40, 34, 35, 35; mbube/mbaqanga, 156, 157; oratorio, 125–27, 127, 175–78, 176; socialist realism, 131, 140; spirituals, 80–90, 83, 84, 87, 88, 90; in world beat, 114–18, 115, 118

chorale, 126, 127

Christianity, 16, 122, 125, 206; and citizenship/rights, 24, 68, 80–81; in oratorio, 127, 176; in spirituals, 80–82, 85

Chung, Kyung Wha, 208–9

Chung, Myung Wha, 208–9

Chung, Myung Whun, 208–9

cimbalom, 48, 58, 60

citizenship: and cultural ties, 14, 194, 195, 235–36; definition, 14, 120; and exclusion, 20–22, 64, 67, 68, 120–21, 207, 237; and internationalism, 144, 191–92; and invented traditions, 38–39; and modernity, 28, 122, 127–28; and nation-states, 120–21, 128, 144, 194–95, 198, 236; as responsibility, 224–25; and rights, 14–15, 67, 194, 223, 230, 235; and state propaganda, 132, 134, 135, 143, 144, 147

civil rights, 67, 79, 136, 138, 171, 220, 240

Clapton, Eric, 77, 79

classical (concert) music: Margaret Bonds, 91–92, 92; Johannes Brahms, 56, 59, 60, 61; Frédéric Chopin, 91; canon in, 210–11, 234–35; in colonies and ex-colonies, 2, 25; and concert spirituals, 86–90; criticism of, 160, 162–64, 167; “death of,” 210; Claude Debussy, 30–33, 31; European Americans and, 2, 235; exoticism in, 55–62; French, 29–33; gamelan as analogue to, 41, 42; German, 31; in Harlem Renaissance, 87–92; Joseph Haydn, 55, 55–56, 58, 61; in Japan, 122–24, 127–28, 208; Korean musicians in, 208–13; Franz Liszt, 50, 56–59, 58, 60, 76, 91, 158; Darius Milhaud, 174–75, 175; and modernization, 122–28; and New Music, 133, 149, 160, 162–63, 167; notation, 30, 56, 87, 99, 103, 184; in propaganda, 127–28, 131–33; Florence Price, 90–91, 91; racism in, 209–10; Romani music in, 55–61, 248n22; Ahmed Adnan Saygun, 125–27, 126; Dmitri Shostakovich, 131; socialist realism, 131–32; in South Korea, 208–10; staged presentation style, 146; use of traditional music in, 102, 160–78; as transnational, 211; Turkish, 124–28; as universal, 125, 127, 205, 234; at Universal Exposition of 1889, 28, 29. See also New Music

Cold War: competition, 94, 128–29, 133–35; Iron Curtain, 133–34, 139; mediation, 151; superpower interventions, 130, 159; and world beat, 115–16

collectors: of audio recordings, 2, 9, 96, 111, 180; of songs, 93, 99–106, 125, 184

Page 296 →colonialism: and broadcasting, 98–99; and decolonization 33, 40, 128, 145, 191; definitions, 15–17, 19–20; and folk music, 104; in Indonesia, 17, 19–27, 33–42; and inequality, 159, 200; in Latin America, 16–17; and nation-states, 121; in North America, 68–69; and postcolonial situations, 17, 37–38, 39, 41–42, 205, 220; and travel, 16, 33, 36–37; at Universal Exposition of 1889, 27–31

commercial music: blues, 75, 77, 78; as distinct from folk, 77, 78; and Creative Commons, 196; distaste for, 42, 77; and fair use, 184; recordings, 11, 96; world beat in, 114–19. See also popular music

communism: China, 140, 142, 163, Eastern Europe, 46, 115–16; Indonesia, 37; South Korea, 206; Soviet Union, 128–29, 131; United States, 129, 136, 138, 163, 206

compact discs, xiii, 143, 180, 183

competitions, 62–67, 209, 215

concert music. See classical music

concert spiritual, 85–92, 87, 88, 89, 90, 165, 165–66

connectedness: colonial, 17, 19, 27, 40, 42; commercial, 4–5, 96–97, 118, 191, 198–201; competitive, 94, 133; diasporic, 43, 54, 67, 72, 97–99, 150, 204, 206, 208, 217–18, 220–21; diplomatic, 134, 139, 20; limits of, 3–4, 7, 104, 117, 200; of musical communities, 174–75, 195, 204, 238–39; national, 10, 14, 62, 122, 127, 147, 159, 208; perception of, 2–6, 10, 118, 147, 151, 155, 231; signaling of, 147, 155, 239–40

conventions, 132–33, 160, 167, 233

convergence, 188–89

copying of music, 5, 183, 186–88, 191–93, 196–99, 266n9

copyright: Creative Commons, 195–96; definition, 182–85; fair use, 184, 187; international enforcement, 5, 149, 190–93, 196–201, 231; in lower-income countries, 193–201; music industry and, 184–90; and public domain, 184, 195; unequal protection, 76, 104, 149

cosmopolitanism, 2, 73, 97, 113, 205

courts (law), 8, 46, 139, 184, 186, 187, 197. See also citizenship; rights

courts (royal): European, 42, 47, 56; Hausa, 73; Javanese, 23, 34, 35, 39, 41

Cowell, Henry, 162, 173

Creative Commons, 195–96

credit (attribution): for African American music, 76–77, 87, 88; for Ladysmith Black Mambazo, 159; for Romani music, 49, 50

Cui Jian, 141, 141–42

cultural appropriation: definition, 76–77; folkloric recordings, 103–6; and power, 236–37; in world beat, 154, 158–59, 226. See also appropriation

cultures: definitions, 7, 8; distinctions among, 150, 211, 229, 232–5, 240; “god’s-eye view” of, 152–53; reification of, 7, 10, 78; showcase of, 144–47, 202–4, 237–38. See also boundaries

dance: African American, 70, 82; Arab music for, 97; ballet, 128, 134–35, 145–46; Ballet Folklórico de México, 145–46, 203; electronic dance music, 112–14; in Eurovision contest, 65; Indonesian, 22–23, 34; Romani music for, 47, 52–53; state-sponsored, 145–47, 203

de Sumaya, Manuel, 16

Debussy, Claude, 30–33, 31

decolonization, 33, 40, 128, 145, 191

deterritorialization, 40, 202, 211, 229–30

de Zengotita, Thomas, 152–55, 167, 233, 239

diaspora: African, 67–68, 69, 92; definition, 17, 43; Korean, 205–13, 207, 216–19; and recorded music, 96–99; Romani, 43–46, 45, 54, 66–67

Dibia, I Wayan, 34

diffusion, 75–76. See also appropriation

digital audio, 109–10, 112–14, 202

digital enclosure, 188–90, 200

Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 187

digital rights management (DRM), 186–87

digital sampling, 111–14, 192

diplomacy, music in, 27, 134–35

Page 297 →discrimination: against African Americans, 76–80; against Asians in classical music, 209–10; against Romani people, 49, 63

disjuncture, 230–33

diversity: as catchword, 63–64, 66; and inequality, 233–36, 240; within nation-state, 135, 194, 195

DJ (disc jockey), 111–14, 192

downloading, xiii, 1, 182, 186–88, 193

Drott, Eric, 188–90

DuBois, W.E.B., 166

Dutch, 17, 20–27, 21, 29, 36–37, 41

earnings: economic migration and, 5; performance and, 39, 49, 87; royalties, 104–5, 184, 188, 193, 198–99, 231

editing, 108–14, 118–19

education: and assimilation, 89–90, 109, 166, 232; in “decline,” 210; discrimination in, 46–47; and fair use, 184, 187; and “god’s-eye view,” 167, 179; and migration, 206; and modernization, 109, 122, 123, 125, 128, 140, 208; and social control, 143, 196, 225; and traditional music, 41, 123, 214, 216; Universal Exposition as, 28; and visibility, 67

Egypt, 225–26

el-Dabh, Halim, 107–8, 108

electronic dance music, 93, 112–14, 113

empire: boundaries, 14; and colonies, 33, 122; definition, 20; Middle Eastern, 44, 55, 124; Soviet Union as, 128, 134–35; United States as, 128–29

enclaves, 19, 20, 207, 216, 218

enslaved people, 16, 22–23, 24–25, 27, 68, 69, 74

Erlmann, Veit, 158–59

essentialism, 39–40, 78–80, 85

ethnicity: and heritage, 9–10, 154; and history, 9–10; and identity, 15, 43–45, 63, 67, 92, 227, 231; in marketing, 96–99, 216–19

ethnonym, 44

Europe: appropriation from, 55–62, 91; Bulgaria, 114–19, 115, 116, 118; classical (concert) music of, 29–30, 41, 55–62, 86, 122–28; Cold War in, 129, 130, 132; colonialism, 16–17, 25, 28, 70; copyright in, 104; dance music, 25, 145; Eastern, 44, 50, 55, 63, 115–17, 129, 131, 133, 139, 208; Fisk Jubilee Singers tour of, 88; folk music, 115; France, 27–31, 39, 41; Great Britain, 75–77, 99–102, 100, 104; media, 36, 151, 152; migration patterns, 6, 15, 206; and modernization, 102–3, 122–28, 203, 205; music industry, 96–97, 114, 200–201, 226, 227; music notation, 184; Portugal, 19–20; reception of Indonesian music in, 29–33, 41; reception of Romani music in, 55–62; Romani minority in, 17, 45–46, 45; Western, 50, 55, 103, 132, 133, 208; and world beat, 114–18. See also classical music; colonialism; Germany; Hungary; Soviet Union; whiteness (racialized identity)

European Americans: and African American music, 74, 76–77, 80–83, 85–89; and Asian music, 41, 42, 160–64, 168–71; and classical (concert) music, 2, 234–35; immigrants, 98, 206; spirituals, 80–81, 84. See also whiteness (racialized identity)

European Union, 67, 191

Eurovision Song Contest, 62–66, 64

exchange value, 181–82, 198

exoticism: and African American music, 87; and borrowed sounds, 164, 178; definition, 30; and East Asian music, 164; and Indonesian music, 30–32, 40–41; and Mystery of the Bulgarian Voices, 114–15; and Romani music, 50, 55–62, 66; and South African music, 158–60

exploitation, 7, 74, 80, 149, 150, 226–27

Feld, Steven, 109–10, 110, 113

feminism, 227, 270n78

Fernandes, Sujatha, 220–21

file sharing, 183, 186–88, 192, 193, 194

Fisk Jubilee Singers, 86–89, 87, 88

“flattered self,” 152–55, 158–60, 167, 190

folklore, 75, 77–80, 102–3, 105, 153

Page 298 →folk music: African American, 83–84, 83, 84, 89–90, 91; archiving, 99–103, 105–6, 125; and authenticity, 32, 79, 102–3, 115–19, 152; English, 99–100, 100, 101; Hungarian, 49–50, 53–54, 64; and nation-state, 102–3, 125, 134, 134–35, 194–96; p’ungmul, 213–19, 215, 216; recordings, 93, 103–6, 107, 184; Romani, 51–54, 52, 53, 54; Turkish, 102–3, 215; in world beat, 114–19, 115, 117, 118; and world showcase, 134–35, 144–47, 202–3, 215, 237

folk spiritual, 80–85, 83, 84

Fox, Aaron, 105–6

France, 27–31, 39, 41

friction, 7, 41, 200, 209, 211

funk, 111, 112

gamelan: appropriation, 31, 30–33, 169–71; in Java, 22–24, 23, 24, 31; outside Indonesia, 40–42, 168–71, 169

Garcia, Luis-Manuel, 113

Garoua, Adamou Meigogué, 73

genocide, 8–9, 231–32

geopolitics, 120, 127–29, 136

Germany: in European music, 31, 55, 127; media industries, 36, 97, 209, 226; in World War II, ix, 45, 128, 132

Gil, Gilberto, 149, 194–96

globalization: definitions of, 3–6; downsides of, 150, 159, 211, 222, 231–32; as flow, 76, 202, 204, 209; friction and, 6–7, 41, 200, 209, 211; and neoliberalism, 197–201, 227–28; and world beat, 118. See also scale (scope)

“god’s-eye view,” vii, 109, 152, 154, 158–59, 167, 234

Good Copy Bad Copy, 192

government: arts funding, 14, 26, 41, 75, 93, 102–3, 126–28, 208, 213–15, 216, 218; and assimilation, 44–46; censorship, 67, 93, 131–33, 137–44, 193, 223–26, 269n54; and copyright, 185–87, 191–201; corruption, 142, 224, 226; discrimination by, 64, 155, 206, 236; and education, 46–47, 122–28, 140, 143, 196, 214; and globalization, 4, 5; military interventions, 37, 105–6, 130; and modernization, 122–28; propaganda, ix, 42, 128–31, 136–39, 220; regulation of musical style, 131–33, 134–35, 214. See also nation-state; state

Graham, Sandra, 85–87

Grainger, Percy, 99–102, 100, 101

Gramophone Company, 96–97

Great Britain, 75–77, 99–102, 100, 104

Greenblatt, Stephen, 227, 230

“Gypsy”: in European classical music, 55–62; as Hungarian music style, 47–50, 66; punk, 54; as slur, 43. See also Roma

Hague Convention, 203

Harlem Renaissance, 88–91, 136, 153, 165

Harrison, Lou, 11, 162–64, 164, 167; compared to Barbara Benary, 168–69, 170, 171

Haydn, Joseph, 55, 55–56, 58, 61

heritage: and branding, 212–13; and canon, 210–11, 234–35; definition of, 9, 153, 203; and diaspora, 74, 92, 204, 212–19; and difference, 209–11, 238; and history, 9–10; and mediation, 92, 153, 202–5; and nation, 10, 203–5; preservation of, 5, 7, 99–106, 203–5, 215–19, 231, 235; reification of, 78–79, 102, 153; rejection of, 132; and tourism, 39, 67, 146, 203, 214, 216, 217; transmission of, 92, 210; and values, 9, 27, 42, 146, 238; and world showcase, 144–47, 202–3, 214–15, 237

hierarchy: musical, 102, 162, 209–11, 233–36, 238; political, 16, 20, 23, 235–36

Hindustani music, 161

hip-hop: Yugen Blakrok, 150, 221–23, 222, 223; DJs, 111–12, 192; global, 226–28, 239; Mayam Mahmoud, 150, 225–26, 225; and pan-Africanism, 220–21; Queen Latifah, 219, 220, 221; Soultana, 150, 223–24, 224; turntablism, 111, 111–12

Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), 86, 87, 89

history: in defining heritage, 2, 9–10, 67, Page 299 →78; and musical change, 30, 37; and value judgments, 41, 79, 102, 238

Hong Kong, 141, 210

Hooker, Lynn, 49, 249n32

human rights, 46, 67, 136–38, 171, 220, 230, 239, 240

Hungary: in Eurovision song contest, 62, 65; “Hungarian Dances” (Brahms), 59–61; “Hungarian style,” 49–50, 57, 59; Liszt and, 59; Romungro in, 46–50; Vlach Roma in, 46, 51–54

Hurston, Zora Neale, 89–90

Huun Huur Tu, 117–18, 118

hybridity, 10–11, 78, 114, 118–19, 171, 204–5, 236–37, 239. See also mixing

hyperreal, 106–10

identities: chosen, 7, 43–44, 67, 88–89, 154, 167–68, 179, 211–13, 233–40; dissolution of, 113, 150, 233–34; ethnic, 15, 43–45, 63, 67, 92, 227, 231; and heritage/tradition, 9; mixed, 50, 64, 78, 211–13, 227; and nation, 14, 47, 50, 103, 125, 144–47; and social control, 14, 44–45; and violence, 8–9, 231–33; and visibility, 3, 15, 54, 64, 66–67, 226

ideology, 129

IFPI (International Federation of the Phonographic Industry), 181–82, 185–86, 194, 196–200

ilahi, 126–27, 126

imagined community, 120–21, 222–23, 230

immigrants: and ethnic music, 2, 97–98, 216–19; integration, 15, 205–13, 235; and mixed music, 171; movement of, 6, 13, 45, 68, 69, 113, 205–13, 207, 229–30

improvisation: in Arab dance music, 98; Carnatic (South Indian), 172, 265n44; Hindustani (North Indian), 161; in Romani music, 48, 56, 61; in spirituals, 82, 83, 85, 86

Imre, Anikó, 66

India: appropriation from, 160–62, 161, 171–75, 172; colonialism 16, 19, 21; as nation-state, 121; as nonaligned, 129; North Indian (Hindustani) music, 160–62, 161; record industry, 97; Romani origins in, 43–44, 49; South Indian (Carnatic) music, 171–73, 172, 173

indigenous people: of Brazil, 195; definition, 13; of Indonesia, 22; of Mexico, 16, 145; stereotypes of, 28, 32, 39; at Universal Exposition, 27

Indonesia: appropriation from, 30–33, 31, 169, 169–71; Bali, 33–40, 34, 35; colonial, 19–27, 21; Java, 22–27, 23, 24, 26; music exports, 29, 40–42; postcolonial, 37; tourism, 33–40; at Universal Exposition, 27–30. See also gamelan; kecak

instruments: appropriation of, 141, 142, 162–63, 164, 169; in Atlantic slave trade, 69–70; electronic, 108, 111–13, 111, 113, 171; as mediation, 95; and “otherness,” 31, 56, 124, 141; repurposed, 161, 163, 164, 169, 172, 173, 211–12, 212, 213; in tanjidor, 24–26; at Universal Exposition, 30

intangible heritage, 5, 203–5, 215–19. See also United Nations

intellectual property, 5, 76, 182, 190–91, 193–94, 197–99

interlocking parts: in gamelan music, 23–24, 24; in kecak, 34; in p’ungmul, 215–16, 215, 216; in tanjidor, 26

intermarriage, 19, 24, 44–45, 206

international: alliances, 6, 93, 122, 129, 159, 168, 208; circulation, 59, 113, 208, 211; communication, 42, 122, 127, 131; competitions, 62–67, 209; copyright concerns, 149, 185, 187, 190–201, 231; inequality, 31, 154, 159–60, 200–201, 237; marketing, 42, 54; media, 225, 230; music industry, 66, 93, 96–99, 154, 185–86, 193, 195, 198, 202, 218; tourism, 39, 67, 146, 203, 214, 216, 217; trade organizations, 191–201; travel, 206, 208, 209; visibility, 42, 63–66, 90, 155, 159, 193–96, 220; world system, 93–94, 128–29, 168, 203–5. See also transnationalism; United Nations

Page 300 →International Federation of the Phonogram Industry (IFPI), 181–82, 185–86, 194, 196–99, 200

internet: access, xiii, 4, 152, 180, 181, 195; and diaspora, 218; digital enclosure, 188–90, 200; file sharing (“piracy”), 183, 187–88, 198; mediation of music via, 1, 3, 113, 152, 183, 202, 226; regulation, 187–88, 198; service providers (ISPs), 187, 189

Iñupiat music, 105–6, 106

invented tradition: in colonialism, 3, 38–40; definition 38–39; and folk music, 103, 115–16; and nation-state, 103

Iran, 193

Iraq, 232–33

Iron Curtain, 133–34, 139. See also Cold War

Islam: in Europe, 15; in hip-hop, 223–26; in Indonesia, 37; popular music and, 113, 232–33; in Turkish modernization, 125–27

Izawa, Shūji, 123

Jackson, Molly, 184

Japan: in Cold War, 208; colonialism, 20, 129, 206; modernization, 122–24, 127–28; music industry, 182, 185, 186–87, 191, 193, 200–201

Java: as Dutch colony, 20; music in, 22–27, 23, 24, 26; at Universal Exposition, 28–29, 30. See also gamelan; Indonesia

jazz: Anthony Braxton Quartet, 174; appropriation of, 91, 112, 173, 175; and authenticity, 107; diplomacy, 131, 135; Duke Ellington Orchestra, 166, 173; heritage, 9; Johnny Hodges, 173; Manouche, 46; Mezz Mezzrow, 107; participation, 238; Thad Jones and Mel Lewis Orchestra, 174

journalism, 36, 95–96, 152

Kaluli, 109–10, 110

Kaplan, Martha, 228, 239

Katz, Mark, 254n2, 255n20, 275n66

kecak, 33–40, 34, 35, 35

Kelly, John, 228, 239

Kentaro, DJ (Kentaro Okamoto), 111

Kim, Soojin, 217

Kolompar, Mihály, 53

Korea: North Korea, 208; South Korea (Republic of Korea), 129, 150, 162–63, 164, 204, 205–19

Korean Americans, 150, 204, 205–13, 207, 216–19, 218

koto, 212

Kubik, Gerhard 72–74, 75

Kulaar, Anatoly, 117

Kumalo, Bakithi, 155–56

labels (music industry), 154, 185, 193, 195, 199

Lady Gaga, 233

Ladysmith Black Mambazo, 149, 155–60, 156, 157

lament, 51, 72, 126, 175

Latin America: Brazil, 149, 192–96, 192, 199–200; colonialism in, 16; copyright in, 149, 192–97, 199–200; electronic dance music in, 113; modernization, 194; as target of propaganda, 128, 129, 130, 134

laws, 5, 8, 46, 139, 184, 186, 187, 197

libraries, 104–5, 131, 140

Linda, Solomon, 156

lining out, 82, 84, 85

Liszt, Franz, 50, 56–59, 58, 60, 76, 91, 158

local: and authenticity, 205, 226–27; identity, 7, 15, 150, 219–22; and national, 102–3, 195; and regional/global, 5–6, 15, 67, 113, 129, 197–98, 203–5, 226–27, 219–20, 221–22, 230–33

localization: definition, 26, 202; of music, 26, 74, 208–28

long-playing record (LP), xiii, 6, 111, 129–31, 152

looping, 108, 112, 170, 171, 192

Los Angeles, 2, 3, 146, 216–18, 218

Lowe, Melanie, 239–40

magnetic tape: xiii, 105, 107, 109, 129, 180; cassette tape, xiii, 6, 131, 140, 142, 155, 180, 183, 186; mixtape, 183, 184, 232; tape music, 165, 166, 170, 171

Page 301 →Mahmoud, Mayam, 150, 225, 225–26

majority groups: appropriation by, 75–80, 236–37; musical interactions of, 11, 46, 50, 62, 237; and violence, 8–9, 15, 63, 92, 232–33

Marx, Karl, 180–81, 182

mashup, 114. See also mixing

mbaqanga, 156, 156–57

mbube, 156, 156–57

McLuhan, Marshall, 151–52, 159, 160

MCs, 219–28. See also hip-hop

media. See broadcast; internet; notation; recording; streaming

mediation: definition, 6, 95–96; and governance, 230–40; of heritage, 144–47, 202–3, 215, 237; through journalism, 36, 63; knowledge transfer, 61; and nation-states, 121; and propaganda, 121–22, 138–39; and selfhood, 152–55, 160, 178, 189–90, 228, 240; through sound recordings, 95–110; television, 62–63

Meintjes, Louise, 156–57, 159

Mexico, 15–16, 16, 145–46, 197

Michiels, Augustijn, 22–25

Middle East: Arab Spring, 224–25; in Cold War, 134; Egypt, 225–26; electronic dance music, 113; empires, 44, 55; Iran, 193; Iraq, 232–33; record industry, 97

migration, 2, 6, 45, 68, 69, 113, 205–13, 207, 229–30; and citizenship, 13–15; definitions, 6, 13; and ethnic music, 97–98, 216–19; and integration, 13, 15, 205–13, 235

Milhaud, Darius, 99, 174, 175

military: Chinese, 130, 140, 142–43; in Indonesia, 19, 26, 36, 37; in Japan, 122–23; power, 5, 9, 16, 122, 154, 197; protests against, 137, 142–44, 163, 164; in South Korea, 206, 214; Soviet, 129, 130, 206; United States, 129, 130, 206, 232–33

military music: band music, 25, 122–23, 140; in classical (concert) music, 123–24, 131, 163, 177

minimalism, 169–71, 169, 171

minority groups: appropriation from, 75–80, 233, 236–37; assimilation, 11, 44–45, 90–92; civil rights of, 44, 45, 52, 64, 66, 137–38, 171, 220–21; diasporic, 17, 43–46, 45, 54, 66–69, 69, 92, 204–13, 207, 216–19; interaction with majority, 17, 43–50; music specific to, 51–54, 82–84, 97–98, 217–19; and nation-states, 15, 121, 227–30, 236–40; persecution of, 7–9, 134–35, 232. See also African Americans; Korean Americans; Roma

misrepresentation, 76–77, 220, 226

missionaries: and modernization, 122–23; in Papua New Guinea, 109; in United States, 80, 86, 105–6

mixing (musical): in classical (concert) music, 31–33, 55–62, 90–92, 160–79; and colonialism, 16, 19, 22, 33; in dance music, 93, 113–14; and diaspora, 50, 78, 81–85, 204–5; and identity, 11, 239; in popular music, 93, 111–19, 142, 154–60, 194–96; and power, 75–80, 154–55, 236–37

mixing board, 157–58, 158, 160

mixtape, 183, 184, 232

modernity: and comparison, 28, 30, 39, 62, 205, 210–11; and democracy, 129; and loss of traditional music, 100–102; as universal, 28, 125, 127, 205, 234

modernization: in Bali, 36; in Brazil, 194–96; and commercial music, 94; definition, 122, 202; and heritage, 203–5; in Japan, 93, 122–24, 127–28, 210; in Korea, 214–15; in Soviet Union, 128; in Turkey, 93, 102–3, 122, 124–28, 210; and “world system,” 202–5

Moiseyev, Igor, 134, 134–35

monetization, 181–82, 189–90, 198–201, 270n78

Morocco, 223–24, 224

multiculturalism, 66, 67, 162, 194–95, 236

music industry: blues in, 75–78, 80; commercial recordings, 75, 93, 99–103; copyright, 181–83, 185–93, 200, 231; discrimination in, 76, 184, 237; Eurovision Song Contest and, 62–66; international, 66, 93, 96–99, 154, 185–86, 193, 195, 198, 202, 218; in lower-income countries, 154, Page 302 →190–201; monetization, 181–83; profits of, 181–83, 185–93, 200; record labels, 154, 185, 193, 195, 199; and world beat, 54, 66, 114–19, 159, 226

Muslims: in Europe, 15; in hip-hop, 223–26; in Indonesia, 37; popular music and, 113, 232–33; in Turkish modernization, 125–27

Mystery of the Bulgarian Voices, 114–19, 115, 118

Na, Hyo-Shin, 211–13, 212, 213, 239

nation: boundaries, 7–10, 43, 222–23; branding, 5, 41, 146; and colonialism, 16, 40, 128, 135, 145; and curricula, 41; definitions, 10, 14, 120; and media, 67, 120–21, 154; and minority groups, 15, 49–50, 59–62, 75, 135, 230; musical styles, 62, 64, 65–66, 135, 222–23; and nation-state, 120–21; representation of, 63, 134–35, 144–47, 204; symbolic participation, 39. See also identity; nationalism; nation-state

nationalism: Brazilian, 194–96; cultivated by states, 131–32; definition, 120; French, 31; in folk music archiving, 100–103; Hungarian, 49–50, 57, 59, 60, 64, 65; in Indonesia, 37, 42; and internationalism, 66; multicultural, 236–38; Soviet, 131. See also identity; nation; nation-state

nation-state: borders, 43, 93, 128, 144, 231; censorship, 67, 93, 131–32, 137–44, 193, 226; citizenship, 14, 194–95, 199; copyright enforcement, 190–91, 197–98, 200–201, 231; decolonization and, 191; definition, 14–15, 120; dissent in, 93, 142–43, 155, 163, 225; and empire, 20, 27–28, 124; exports/exhibitions, 27–28, 134–35, 144–47; and folk music, 103–4, 115–16, 125, 134–35, 213–18, 226; and heritage, 94, 102–3, 120, 203–4, 213–19; as imagined community, 120–21, 144, 202, 235; indigenous people in, 145–46; and invented traditions, 102–3; lower-income, 37, 154, 192–93, 198–201; and mediation, 93–94, 120–21, 144; and minority groups, 15, 75, 120, 134–35, 213, 229–30, 232, 236–37; and mixed musics, 240; and modernization, 122–28, 147, 194, 231; and music industry, 201, 218–19, 231; propaganda, 42, 121, 144–47; pulling music, 122–31, 151; pushing music, 121, 134–39, 144–47, 151; superpower, 128–29, 130, 134, 135, 159, 168; within world system, 93–94, 128–29, 144–47, 168, 197–201, 202–3, 215, 237. See also government; internationalism; states

neoliberalism, 197, 201, 202

neospiritual (concert spiritual), 85–92, 87, 88, 89, 90, 165, 165–66

Netherlands, 17, 20–27, 21, 29, 36–37, 41

networks: colonial 17, 19, 27, 40, 42; international, 3, 17, 129, 150, 220; limits of, 3–4, 7, 117, 200; social, 1, 194, 230; technological, 95, 97, 151, 185, 187–88

New Music: appropriation in, 160–64, 168–71; Barbara Benary, 149, 168–71, 169, 170, 178, 179; Pierre Boulez, 132–33, 133; Anthony Braxton, 174; Courtney Bryan, 149, 175, 175–79, 177; Henry Cowell, 162, 173; criticism of, 133; definition, 165–66, 213; Halim El-Dabh, 107–8, 108; Lou Harrison, 11, 162–64, 164, 167; meaning in, 132–33, 166, 167; Hyo-Shin Na, 211–13, 212, 213; Krzysztof Penderecki, 175, 176; Steve Reich, 170–71, 171; Terry Riley, 149, 160–62, 161, 164, 167, 169–70, 171, 175; serialism, 132–33, 133, 135, 160, 162, 163, 165–66, 169, 170; Asha Srinivasan, 149, 171–75, 172, 178, 179, 265n44; transnational, 211–13; Galina Ustvolskaya, 132; Olly Wilson, 149, 164–67, 165, 175, 179

New York City: Asian Americans in, 5, 216–17; “Gypsy punk” in, 54; higher education, 88, 105, 208–9; hip-hop in, 111, 219, 220, 222; New Music in, 168–69; World’s Fair, 41

Niang, Abdoulaye, 227

noise music, 108

nonaligned states, 129, 138, 159, 168, 208

Page 303 →North America: appropriation of music from, 75–80, 111, 221–28, 233; Canada, 16, 138, 206; and colonialism, 16, 17; de-westernizing, 151; diasporic populations in, 16, 43, 68–72, 69, 81–94, 105–6, 205–6; education, 41, 42; marketing to, 110, 114, 115, 167–68, 226; Mexico, 15–16, 16, 145–46, 197. See also United States of America

notation: and copyright, 104, 182, 184; of folk music, 68–69, 87, 99–100, 101, 103, 184; as instruction for performance, 61, 95; as mediation, 30, 95, 180; as norm, 87

Notosudirdjo, Franki S., 25

occidentalism, 103

Oceania, 109–10

oral bassing, 53–54

oratorio, 125–27, 126, 176–77

orientalism: definition, 30–31; and modernization, 103; in Western Europe, 30–32, 50, 103; in Yamada’s music, 123–24. See also exoticism

ornamentation, related to blues, 73, 74; in Carnatic music, 172; in imitations of “exotic” music, 31, 55, 58, 65, 163; in Price’s music, 91; in Romani music, 48; in spiritual singing, 84; in Turkish art music, 125

Ottoman Empire, 44, 55, 124–25

overdubbing, 107

ownership: and credit, 79–80, 158–60, 203–5, 222, 228, 232, 275n66; legal, 5, 104–5, 149, 182–83, 185, 193–96, 200; and locality, 219

Pandora, 95, 188

Pápai, Joci, 62–66, 64

Papua New Guinea, 109–10, 110

Penderecki, Krzysztof, 175, 176

persecution: of African American people, 76–80; of Asian American people, 207, 209–10; of Jewish people, 13; of Romani people, 44, 45, 52, 64, 66. See also discrimination

Phiri, Ray, 159

phonograph: in archiving, 99–103, 100; invention, xiii; music industry, 96–97; overdubbing, 107

piano: arrangements of gamelan, 30–33; Margaret Bonds, 91, 91–92; Henry Cowell, 173; Franz Liszt, 50, 56–59, 58, 60, 76, 91, 158; Hyo-Shin Na, 211–12, 212; Florence Price, 90–91, 91

piracy, 5, 183, 186–88, 191–93, 196–99, 266n9

police brutality, 46, 63

polka, 98

popular music: African American, 71, 75, 86–87; Arab, 97; Brazilian, 192; Chinese, 139–44; Chinese American, 3; electronic dance music, 112–14; Eurovision Song Contest, 62–66; and folk music, 77, 78; Ghanaian, 10; hip-hop, 111–12, 150, 192, 204, 219–27; Indonesian, 26, 42; Polish American, 98; pop song, 62, 64–65, 140–42, 141, 155–60, 156, 157; recorded, 96, 97, 102, 107, 117–18, 192; rock, 76–77, 135, 139–44, 194; Romungro (Hungarian), 47, 50, 56, 62–67; South African, 155–60, 155, 156; tecnobrega, 192; turntablism, 111–12; United States, 85, 86–87, 107, 131, 135, 139, 149, 232–33; world beat, 114–19, 159

Portugal, 19–20

postcolonial peoples, 17, 37–38, 39, 41–42, 205, 220

Powell, Mississippi Matilda, 71, 73

precision, 23, 48, 87, 90, 174

preservation: of African traditions in Americas, 70, 72, 81, 86, 89–90; and authenticity, 77; in Bali, 36; and canon, 210–11, 235; of folk music, 99–100, 101, 217; of heritage, 7, 9, 42, 96, 99–106, 214, 217, 231; of national music, 49, 203; by notation, 99–100, 101; by recording, 96, 99–103, 100, 106, 108, 109–10, 231; of Romani language, 51; in South Korea, 214, 217; and United Nations, 203, 214

press, 36, 95–96, 152

prestige, 76, 208, 210–11, 234–35

Page 304 →Price, Florence, 90–91, 91

“primitive” (stereotype), 28, 29, 30–31, 39, 125, 145, 205

printed music: copyright, 184, 266n9; in Europe, 59, 61, 75; as medium, 6, 95, 180; and spirituals, 87

profits: from colonialism, 19, 20; and copyright, 5, 104, 181–83, 185, 188, 199, 231; music industry, 181–83, 185–93, 200; nation-state protection of, 143, 192; unequal distribution, 59, 76, 79–80, 104, 155, 159, 184, 198–201

propaganda: Cold War, 128–29, 136–39, 220–21; live performance in, 121–22; and modernization, 125, 127–28; by nation-states, 5, 115–16, 121–22, 131–32, 133

protest: antidiscrimination, 136, 155; antiwar, 229; Arab Spring, 225; in China, 93, 142–44; Cold War, 129; hip-hop and, 223–26, 233; music as, 136, 142–44, 163, 214, 223–26; against music industry, 193; in South Africa, 155; in South Korea, 214; in Soviet Union, 93, 132; in United States 136–37, 163, 178, 229. See also censorship

public domain, 184, 195

pulling music: in Cold War, 128–31, 141–44, 151; across international borders, 6, 121; and modernization, 122–28

p’ungmul, 213–19, 215, 216

pushing music: across international borders, 6, 25; in Cold War propaganda, 121, 134–39, 144–47, 151

Queen Latifah, 219, 220, 221

race: definition, 68; and genocide, 8–9; and immigration policy, 206; and social distinction, 58, 81, 92, 194, 206, 229

racism: and appropriation, 50, 57, 58; and classical (concert) music, 32, 209–11; and discrimination, 44, 206, 207, 209–11

Radano, Ronald, 79, 251n7

radio: and copyright, 183, 185; government-controlled, 42, 98; as medium, 1, 97, 135, 138–39, 155; and New Music, 107, 108; in propaganda, 103, 125, 128, 131

raga, 172

Ramayana, 35, 36

rap: Yugen Blakrok, 221–23, 222, 223; global, 226, 227; Mayam Mahmoud, 225–26, 225; Joci Pápai, 65; Queen Latifah, 219, 220, 221; Soultana, 223–24, 224; in turntablism, 111

Reagon, Bernice Johnson, 83, 83, 84, 90

realism, 108–10

recognition, 79, 220, 227–28. See also appropriation; credit; misrepresentation

recommendation, 1, 95, 189–90

recordings: and artistic creation, 107–19; and authenticity, 102, 106–10; censorship of, 93, 139–40, 143, 193; circulation of, 96–99, 113, collections of, 2, 72, 102–6, 111–12, 180; commercial, 75, 78; copyright, 104, 182–90; and diasporas, 96–99; digital, 109–10, 112–14, 182–83, 186–89, 192, 193, 194–95, 197, 199–200; editing, 109–11; and folk music, 93, 103–6, 184; historical, 72, 82–83, 87; and live performance, 78, 102, 192; as mediation, 95–96, 113, 129–31, 138; phonograph, xiii, 96–103, 100, 105–6; on physical media, 180, 186–87, 191–93, 196–97, 199, 200; piracy, 5, 183, 186–88, 191–93, 196–99; reuse of, 178, 183, 184, 200; and transmission, 2, 6, 93, 113, 129, 135. See also music industry

records: 78 rpm, xiii; blues, 72, 72; ethnic, 96–99; long-playing (LP), xiii, 6, 111, 112, 129–31, 152

refugees, 15, 206, 229

Reich, Steve, 170–71, 171

reification, 8, 10, 78–79, 102, 153

religious music: Christian, 122, 127, 135, 176; oratorio, 125–27, 126, 176–77; sanghyang dedari, 34, 36

repatriation, 7, 104–6

representation: abroad, 27, 41, 42, 62–63, 66, 89, 134, 144–47, 203, 227–28; and appropriation, 76–77, 92, 168; choice in, 153, 154, 160–79, 204–5, 223, 227–28, 239–40; conventions of, 123–24; and essentialism, 78–80, 145, 226; of groups, Page 305 →85–92, 204; in invented tradition, 38, 203; and recording, 107, 110, 114

retentions, 17, 70, 72–74, 251n7

Revuluri, Sindhumathi, 29–33

rhapsody, 57–58, 58, 60

RIAA (Recording Industry Association of America), 185–88

Rieff, Philip, 150, 229, 233–36, 238, 276n1

rights: of citizens, 14–15, 67, 194, 223, 230, 235; civil, 67, 79, 136, 138, 171, 220, 240; human, 46, 67, 136–38, 171, 220, 230, 239, 240

Riley, Terry, 149, 160–62, 161, 164, 167, 169–70, 171, 175

ritual, 2, 23, 26, 34, 36, 39

Robeson, Paul: in Cold War politics, 136–39; and concert spiritual, 89; in Harlem Renaissance, 88–89, 136; in workers’ movement, 136, 137

rock, 76–77, 135, 139–44, 194

Roma: appropriation from, 55–58, 55, 56, 58; assimilation, 44–45; in Eurovision Song Contest, 63; history, 43–46; integration, 46–47, 49–50, 51, 53–54; migration of, 6, 45; persecution of, 44, 45, 52, 64, 66; Vlach Roma, 46, 51–54; Romungro, 46–50, 48; stereotypes of, 44, 55, 63; in world beat, 54, 66

Romungro, 46–50, 48, 248n22

royalties, 104–5, 188, 193, 199. See also profit

sacred music: Christian, 122, 127, 135, 176; oratorio, 125–27, 126, 176–77; sanghyang dedari, 34, 36

Salois, Kendra, 224, 225–26

sampling, 15, 111–14, 192

Sárközi, Lajos, Jr., 47–49, 48

Sassen, Saskia, 15, 197

saxophones, 172, 173, 174, 175

Saygun, Ahmed Adnan, 125–127, 126, 259n22

scale (scope): global and local, 5–6, 15, 67, 113, 129, 197–98, 203–4, 226–28, 230–33; worldwide, 120, 183, 186, 191–92, 199, 228, 237

scale (tuning): blues, 71, 73, 177; European, 56, 126, 127; gamelan, 30, 169, 170; makam, 125, 126, 127; pentatonic, 140, 162, 163; raga, 160, 172; in Romungro music, 61

Schaeffer, Pierre, 108–9, 108

Schneider, David, 47

Second World War. See World War II

Senegal, 70, 198, 226

serialism, 132–33, 133, 135; and New Music, 160, 162, 163, 165–66, 169, 170

Shabalala, Joseph, 149, 155–60, 156, 157

sheet music: blues in, 75; copyright, 184, 266n9; in European marketplace, 59, 61, 75; as medium, 6, 95, 180; publishing, 76; spirituals as, 87

Sheppard, Ella, 86

Shostakovich, Dmitri, 131, 131–32

showcase, 144–47, 202–3, 215, 237

Sikvayugak, Joseph, 105–6, 106, 231

Silverman, Carol, 63

Simon, Paul, 149, 155–60, 156, 157, 158, 167, 237

Sinti, 43–44, 46

Skinner, Ryan, 199

slavery, 16, 22–23, 24–25, 27, 68, 69, 74

socialism, 133, 136

socialist realism, 131, 131–32, 134, 140

Sony Music Entertainment, 182, 185, 186–87, 193

Soul Brothers, 156, 157

Soultana (Youssra Oakuf), 150, 223–24, 224, 225, 227

South Africa, 155–57, 156, 192, 221–23, 222, 223

South Korea (Republic of Korea), 129, 150, 162–63, 164, 204, 205–19, 215, 216

Soviet Union: censorship, 93, 131–32, 139; in Cold War, 129, 130, 131–35, 138–39, 206, 208; interventions abroad, 6, 128, 130, 134–35, 220; socialist realism in, 131, 131–32, 134

Spain, 16–17, 20, 46

Spies, Walter 36, 37

spirituals: arrangements of, 90–92, 90, 91; concert, 85–92, 87, 88, 89, 90, 165, 165–66; folk, 80–85, 83, 84

Page 306 →Spotify, 188, 189–90

Srinivasan, Asha, 149, 171–75, 172, 178, 179, 265n44

standardization, 38, 94, 115, 121, 147, 151, 215, 216, 222, 226, 255n20

state: borders, 6, 128; definition, 14–15, 120–21; enforcement power, 9, 138; and international institutions, 5; and statelessness, 15. See also government; nation-state

Stepputat, Kendra, 38–39, 245n45

stereotypes: definition, 10; of ethnic groups, 55–56, 58–59, 63, 64, 66, 77, 209; about folklore, 77; of indigenous people, 39; of nations, 62–63, 145, 146; orientalist, 30, 31, 50, 103, 123–24; in strategic essentialism, 78–79, 80. See also representation

Strain, Adrian, 181–82, 200

strategic essentialism, 39, 78–80

Stravinsky, Igor, 145, 145–46

streaming, xiii, 182, 185, 188–90, 193, 199, 200

Sumaya, Manuel de, 16

superpower (state), 128–29, 130, 134, 135, 159, 168

surveillance, 137, 142, 187–90, 193, 196–97

survivals, 17, 70, 72–74, 251n7

symphonic poem, 123–24

tanjidor, 25–27

tape music, 165, 170–71, 171

Taylor, Jean, 22–23

Taylor, Joseph, 99, 100, 101

Tayo, Ayomide, 198

tecnobrega, 192, 192, 196

television, xiii, 6, 222; and distant contact, 1, 2; information access, 42, 143; and mediated self, 151–52, 230; popular music on, 62, 117; ratings, 189

throat singing, 117–18, 117, 118

Tiananmen Square, 142–43

Tiersot, Julien, 30

tokenism, 237

tourism: and colonialism, 33–40; and heritage, 39, 67, 146, 203, 214, 216, 217; industry, 226; virtual, 28, 146

trade routes: ancient, 13, 19; and colonialism, 16, 20, 33; and Indonesia, 19–20, 21

tradition: and assimilation, 85–92; definition of, 9; individual choices about, 11, 74, 92, 166, 204–5, 210, 227–28, 238; invented, 38, 39–40; open, 80, 92, 204, 210, 238; persistence of, 45, 74, 85; reification of, 78–79, 102, 153

traditional music: adaptations of, 90, 124, 227; archiving, 99–103, 105–6, 125; and authenticity, 32; kecak as, 39–40; preservation, 79, 99–106, 203–5, 208; p’ungmul, 213–19; tanjidor as, 27; and world showcase, 134–35, 144–47, 202–3, 215, 237

transculturation, 211

transmission: among community members, 3; through media, 2, 6, 96–99; performance as, 6; through travel, 2

transnationalism: and classical (concert) music, 208–12; definition, 15; and diaspora, 66, 165, 211–12, 218–19, 220; and hip-hop, 224, 227, 233; and tradition, 203–5

travel, 2, 14, 27, 37, 129, 136, 152, 160, 206

TRIPS Agreement, 191–93, 196, 200

Tsing, Anna, 4, 7, 41, 200–201

Turkey, 63, 93, 102–3, 124–28, 210, 231

Turkish Folk Music, 102–3, 103

turntablism, 93, 111–12, 111

Tuva, 117–18, 117, 118

Ulahi, 110

underground music, 140, 142, 143, 193

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR); censorship, 93, 131–32, 139; in Cold War, 129, 130, 131–35, 138–39, 206, 208; interventions abroad, 6, 128, 130, 134–35, 220; socialist realism, 131, 131–32, 134

United Kingdom, 75–77, 99–102, 100, 104

United Nations: establishment of, 5, 128, Page 307 →19; and human rights, 67, 155; intangible heritage programs, 5, 203–4, 213–15, 218; promotion of national musics, 144–47, 168, 203, 215, 219, 227, 237; and trade agreements, 191, 227; UNESCO, 214; WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization), 191, 198, 199; and “world system,” 202–4, 237

United States of America: appropriations from, 111; censorship, 137–39; diplomacy, 75, 135; domestic politics, 105, 135–39; immigration policy, 206; interventions abroad, 6, 30, 37, 128–29, 130, 206, 208, 220–21; Korean Americans in, 150, 204, 205–13, 207, 216–19, 218; Latinx people in, 111, 219, 233; Los Angeles, 2, 3, 146, 216–18, 218; music industry, 96, 98, 191, 200–201; New York City, Asian Americans in, 6, 216–17; New York City, “Gypsy punk,” 54; New York City, higher education, 88, 105, 208–9; New York City, New Music, 168–69; New York City, hip-hop, 111, 219, 220, 222; New York City World’s Fair, 41; popular music, 85, 86–87, 98, 107, 110–11, 131, 135, 139, 149, 232–33; slavery in, 68–69, 80; at Universal Exposition, 27

Universal Exposition, 27–31, 39, 41

Universal Music Group, 185

universality, 28, 125, 127, 205, 234

unofficial music, 131, 142–43

use value, 180–81, 200

Ustvolskaya, Galina, 132

Várady, Mihály, 51–52, 52

Victor Talking Machine Company, 96, 98

virtuosity, 48, 49, 55–59, 58, 60, 111–12, 111, 174

Vlach Roma, 46, 51–54, 51, 52, 53, 54, 248n15

vocables, 53, 64–65

waltz, 25, 26

Wang, Grace, 208

Wang, Leehom 3, 10

Warner Music Group, 182, 185, 188–89

Waters, Muddy, 76

West: and classical (concert) music, 124, 208–10; in Cold War, 115–17, 133, 139; criticism of, 162–63; and modernization, 36, 122. See also modernity; modernization; orientalism

White, George, 86

whiteness (racialized identity): and appropriation of African American music, 75–77, 79–80, 236–37; and civil rights, 137–38; in classical (concert) music, 2, 90–92, 209–10; European, 27, 62; and exoticism, 87; musical repertories associated with, 86, 209–10; North Americans and, 27, 68, 80–81, 206; and racism, 77, 85; and reception of African American music, 69, 74, 80–82, 85, 87–90, 219; in spiritual singing, 81–82, 84–85; supremacist groups, 137. See also European Americans

Wilde, Oscar, 233, 239

Williams, Big Joe, 73

Wilson, Olly, 149, 164–67, 165, 175, 179

wire recorder, 107–8, 108

Wong, Faye, 141

work song, 72–73, 72, 82, 109–10, 110

World Bank, 5, 198–99

world beat: appropriation in, 154, 158–59, 226; and Cold War, 115–16; definition, 54, 114; and endangered music, 109; Hungarian Romani in, 54, 66; Ladysmith Black Mambazo, 149, 155–60, 156, 157; mixing of traditions in, 93, 114–19, 154–55; Mystery of the Bulgarian Voices, 114–19, 115, 118; and popular music market, 54, 66, 114–19, 159, 226; Paul Simon, 149, 155–60, 156, 157, 158, 167, 237; throat-singing in, 117, 118

world showcase, 144–47, 202–3, 215, 237

world system, 93–94, 128–29, 198, 202–4, 228

World Trade Organization, 191–93, 196–201

World War I, 124

Page 308 →World War II, 20, 26, 37, 45, 132, 164; and heritage preservation, 203; postwar, 45, 131–33, 166; and propaganda, 128, 129; and “world system,” 129, 144, 202

Yamada, Kōsaku, 122–24, 123, 124, 141, 259n14

Yamaha, 123

YouTube, 40, 95, 185

Zenón, Miguel, 238