Notes

1. Conversation with Anthony Sheppard and Tamara Levitz, UCLA, April 2017; Grace Wang, Soundscapes of Asian America: Navigating Race through Musical Performance (Durham: Duke University Press, 2015), 158–64.

2. Christopher Small, Musicking: The Meanings of Performing and Listening (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1998), 13–14.

3. Miniwatts Marketing Group, “Internet World Stats,” www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm; World Bank Group, World Development Report 2016: Digital Dividends Overview, document 102724, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/23347

4. John Tomlinson, Globalization and Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 9.

5. Tomlinson, 2; Arjun Appadurai, “Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy,” Theory, Culture & Society 7 (1990): 296.

6. Anna Tsing, Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 9, 85.

7. David Harvey, “Time-Space Compression and the Postmodern Condition,” in The Global Transformations Reader, ed. David Held and Anthony McGrew (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2000), 82–91.

8. Saskia Sassen, Territory—Authority—Rights: From Medieval to Global Assemblages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 299, 302–3.

9. This description of definitions is based on Bryan S. Turner, “Theories of Globalization: Issues and Origins,” in The Routledge International Handbook of Globalization Studies, ed. Bryan S. Turner (New York: Routledge, 2010), 3–10.

10. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 18, 178–99.

11. Danielle Fosler-Lussier, “Music Pushed, Music Pulled: Cultural Diplomacy, Globalization, and Imperialism,” Diplomatic History 36, no. 1 (2012): 53–64.

12. Tsing, Friction, 4, 5.

13. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (1983; New York: Verso, 1991), 5–7.

Page 242 →14. Seyla Benhabib, The Claims of Culture: Equality and Diversity in the Global Era (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), ix, 4. For a map that shows when geographic boundaries were established, see https://c1.staticflickr.com/5/4596/24556520177_d5a5b6d97a_o.png

15. Edward Said, Orientalism (1978; New York: Vintage, 1994), 4–9, 54–63, and esp. 72–73.

16. Stephen Blum, “Music in an Age of Cultural Confrontation,” in Music-Cultures in Contact: Convergences and Collisions, ed. Margaret J. Kartomi and Stephen Blum (Basel, CH: Gordon and Breach, 1994), 255.

17. Frantz Fanon, “Racism and Culture,” in Toward the African Revolution, trans. Haakon Chevalier (New York: Grove Press, 1967), 34–35.

18. Gregory H. Stanton, “The 8 Stages of Genocide,” paper presented to the US Department of State, 1996, www.genocidewatch.org/images/8StagesBriefingpaper.pdf; summary available at www.genocidewatch.org/aboutgenocide/8stagesofgenocide.html

19. Arjun Appadurai, Fear of Small Numbers: An Essay on the Geography of Anger (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), 42–45.

20. Benhabib, The Claims of Culture, 6–10.

21. Henry Spiller, Gamelan: The Traditional Sounds of Indonesia (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2004), xix.

22. Peter Howard, “The Heritage Discipline,” International Journal of Heritage Studies 1, no. 1 (2007): 3–5.

23. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, “Theorizing Heritage,” Ethnomusicology 39, no. 3 (Autumn 1995): 373–79.

24. Seyla Benhabib, The Claims of Culture: Equality and Diversity in the Global Era (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), 10.

25. Esther de Bruijn, “‘What’s Love’ in an Interconnected World? Ghanaian Market Literature for Youth Responds,” Journal of Commonwealth Literature 43, no. 3 (Sept. 2008): 11, 15, 18–21.

26. Maruša Pušnik and Kristina Sicherl, “Relocating and Personalising Salsa in Slovenia: To Dance Is to Communicate,” Anthropological Notebooks 16, no. 3 (2010): 107–23.

27. Howard J. Ross, Everyday Bias: Identifying and Navigating Unconscious Judgments in Our Daily Lives (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014), 6–7.

28. Stuart Hall, “Race: The Floating Signifier,” transcript, p. 8, Media Education Foundation, https://shop.mediaed.org/race-the-floating-signifier-p173.aspx. See also Benhabib, The Claims of Culture, 13; Nestór García Canclini, Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Modernity, trans. Christopher L. Chiappari and Silvia L. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), xxvi.

29. “West Coast Story, I. Frontiers of New Music,” BBC TV, 29 Nov. 1986, as quoted in Neil Sorrell, A Guide to the Gamelan (London: Amadeus Press, 1990), 12.

30. See Ingrid Monson, Saying Something: Jazz Improvisation and Interaction (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), esp. 125–32.

1. Russell King, ed., Atlas of Human Migration (Buffalo, NY: Firefly Press, 2007), 16, 20–21, 28, 42, 48–49.

Page 243 →2. Jeremy Waldron, “Indigeneity? First Peoples and Last Occupancy,” New Zealand Journal of Public and International Law 1 (2003): 55–82; Francesca Merlan, “Indigeneity: Global and Local,” Current Anthropology 50, no. 3 (June 2009): 303–33.

3. See, for example, the case studies in Jason Toynbee and Byron Dueck, eds., Migrating Music (New York: Routledge, 2011).

4. Saskia Sassen, Territory—Authority—Rights: From Medieval to Global Assemblages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 40.

5. Sassen, 277–86; Arjun Appadurai, Fear of Small Numbers: An Essay on the Geography of Anger (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), 3–7, 49–50; James Minahan, Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups around the World (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002); John Torpey, The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Citizenship, and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 1–17.

6. Sassen, Territory—Authority—Rights, 287.

7. Appadurai, Fear of Small Numbers, 8, and chap. 4; Richard Wike, Bruce Stokes, and Katie Simmons, “Europeans Fear Wave of Refugees Will Mean More Terrorism, Fewer Jobs,” Pew Research Center, 11 July 2016, www.pewglobal.org/2016/07/11/europeans-fear-wave-of-refugees-will-mean-more-terrorism-fewer-jobs

8. Benhabib, The Claims of Culture, xiii; Elsadig Elsheikh and Hossein Ayazi, “Moving Targets: An Analysis of Global Forced Migration,” Research Report, Haas Institute for a Fair and Inclusive Society, University of California, Berkeley (June 2017), 5, http://haasinstitute.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/haasinstitute_moving_targets_globalmigrationreport_publish_web.pdf

9. Sassen, Territory—Authority—Rights, 290–98.

10. Manuel Peña, The Texas-Mexican Conjunto: History of a Working-Class Music (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985); Alejandro L. Madrid, ed., Transnational Encounters: Music and Performance at the U.S.-Mexico Border (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).

11. James Fernandez, “Andalusia on Our Minds: Two Contrasting Places in Spain as Seen in a Vernacular Poetic Duel of the Late 19th Century,” Cultural Anthropology 3, no. 1 (Feb. 1988): 21–35.

12. Alejandro Madrid, Nor-tec Rifa! Electronic Dance Music from Tijuana to the World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 26.

13. Sassen, Territory—Authority—Rights, 82–83.

14. Susan Thomas, “Music, Conquest, and Colonialism,” in Musics of Latin America, ed. Robin Moore (New York: W.W. Norton, 2012), 25–50; Robert Stevenson, “Mexico City Cathedral Music: 1600–1750,” The Americas 21, no. 2 (Oct. 1964): 113–15, 130–33.

1. Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper, Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), 5, 149–56; and Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People without History (1982; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 195–97.

2. Jean Gelman Taylor, The Social World of Batavia: Europeans and Eurasians in Colonial Indonesia (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 7–8, 11–19.

3. Burbank and Cooper, Empires in World History, 8; Saskia Sassen, Territory—AuthorityPage 244 →—Rights: From Medieval to Global Assemblages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 79–96.

4. The two foregoing paragraphs are a gloss on Burbank and Cooper, Empires in World History, 159–61.

5. Frans H. Winarta, “No More Discrimination against the Chinese,” in Ethnic Chinese in Contemporary Indonesia, ed. Leo Suryadinata (Singapore: Chinese Heritage Centre and Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2008), 57–58.

6. J. C. M. Warnsinck, ed., Reisen van Nicolaus de Graaf gedaan naar alle gewesten des werelds, beginnende 1639 tot 1687 incluis (’s-Gravenhage: M. Nijhoff, 1930), 8, quoted in Taylor, The Social World of Batavia, 53.

7. Taylor, The Social World of Batavia, 57–59, 61–66, 238n16.

8. Taylor, 61.

9. Henry Spiller, Gamelan: The Traditional Sounds of Indonesia (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2004), 25–26, 58–59, 70–74.

10. Franki S. Notosudirdjo, “Music, Politics, and the Problems of National Identity in Indonesia” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin, Madison, 2001), 29–38, 74–85.

11. Franki S. Notosudirdjo, “European Music in Colonial Life in 19th-Century Java: A Preliminary Study” (MM thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1990), 12–14.

12. Notosudirdjo, “Music, Politics,” 40.

13. Notosudirdjo, 37–40, 54–58, 85–94.

14. Notosudirdjo, 36.

15. I first learned about tanjidor from Sumarsam, who taught at the National Endowment for the Humanities Summer Institute for Ethnomusicology, Wesleyan University, 2011. See Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2013), 17–19; Notosudirdjo, “European Music in Colonial Life,” 9.

16. Ernst Heins, “Kroncong and Tanjidor—Two Cases of Urban Folk Music in Jakarta,” Asian Music 7, no. 1 (1975): 27–29.

17. Philip Yampolsky, liner notes to Betawi and Sundanese Music of the North Coast of Java (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Folkways 40421, 1994 [recorded 1990]), 10–12.

18. Nicholas B. Dirks, introduction to Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), 3.

19. Jonathan D. Martin, “‘The Grandest and Most Cosmopolitan Object Teacher’: Buffalo Bill’s Wild West and the Politics of American Identity, 1883–1899,” Radical History Review 66 (1996): 95–97.

20. Annegret Fauser, “New Media, Source-Bonding, and Alienation: Listening at the 1889 Exposition Universelle,” in French Music, Culture, and National Identity, 1870–1939, ed. Barbara L. Kelly (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2008), 40–57.

21. Sindhumathi K. Revuluri, “On Anxiety and Absorption: Musical Encounters with the Exotique in Fin-de-siècle France” (PhD diss., Princeton University, 2007), 33–36. This section is based largely on Revuluri’s work.

22. Otis T. Mason, “Anthropology in Paris during the Exposition of 1889,” American Anthropologist 3, no. 1 (1890): 31. Smithsonian Collections Online, tinyurl.galegroup.com/tinyurl/5DbpLX

23. Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 92.

Page 245 →24. Mason, “Anthropology in Paris,” 35; Dirks, Colonialism and Culture, 3.

25. Revuluri, “On Anxiety and Absorption,” 24–33, 50; Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 82–84; Annegret Fauser, Musical Encounters at the 1889 Paris World’s Fair (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2005), 158–65; Edward Said, Orientalism (1978; New York: Vintage Books, 1994), 233–40.

26. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 1–2, 9–11.

27. Revuluri, “On Anxiety and Absorption,” 55, 39, 45.

28. Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 92–106; Revuluri, “On Anxiety and Absorption,” 26, 55–56, 73, 90. See also Neil Sorrell, A Guide to the Gamelan, 2; and Fauser, Musical Encounters, 163–77.

29. Revuluri, “On Anxiety and Absorption,” 76–77.

30. Fauser, Musical Encounters, 177–83; Jann Pasler, “Sonic Anthropology in 1900: The Challenge of Transcribing Non-Western Music and Language,” Twentieth-Century Music 11, no. 1 (2014): 14; Richard Mueller, “Javanese Influence on Debussy’s Fantaisie and Beyond,” 19th Century Music 10, no. 2 (Fall 1986): 162–66.

31. Revuluri, “On Anxiety and Absorption,”104–14, 99.

32. Said, Orientalism, esp. 4–8.

33. E. Monod, L’Exposition Universelle de 1889, 3:136–37, quoted in Revuluri, “On Anxiety and Absorption,” 59.

34. Monod, L’Exposition Universelle de 1889, 2:565, quoted in Revuluri, “On Anxiety and Absorption,” 56.

35. Debussy (1913), quoted in Edward Lockspeiser, Debussy: His Life and Mind (London: Cassell, 1962), 1:115. See also Richard Mueller, “Javanese Influence,” 158.

36. Said, Orientalism, 12.

37. Sylvia Parker, “Claude Debussy’s Gamelan,” College Music Symposium 52 (2012): http://dx.doi.org/10.18177/sym.2012.52.sr.22

38. Claude Debussy, Debussy on Music, ed. François Lesure, trans. and ed. Richard Langham Smith (New York: Knopf, 1977), 16. Quoted in Mueller, “Javanese Influence,” 179.

39. Richard Middleton notes the link between authenticity and modernity in “The Real Thing? The Spectre of Authenticity in Modern Musical Thought,” in Frispel: Festskrift till Olle Edström, ed. Alf Björnberg (Göteborg: Institutionen för musikvetenskap, 2005), 477, 479–80.

40. Mueller, “Javanese Influence,” 179–81.

41. Notosudirdjo, “Music, Politics,” 94.

42. Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994), 122 (Bhabha’s italics). Cited in Sindhumathi K. Revuluri, “Maurice Ravel’s Chants populaires and the Exotic Within,” in Rethinking Difference in Music Scholarship, ed. Olivia Bloechl, Melanie Lowe, and Jeffrey Kallberg (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 255–56.

43. Revuluri, 256–59.

44. Revuluri, “On Anxiety and Absorption,” 115–16.

45. I Wayan Dibia, Kecak: The Vocal Chant of Bali (Denpasar, Indonesia: Hartanto Art Books Studio, 1996), 4–5. Kendra Stepputat attests to the rarity of the sacred form in her Page 246 →“Performing Kecak: A Balinese Dance Tradition between Daily Routine and Creative Art,” Yearbook for Traditional Music 44 (2012): 54.

46. Dibia, Kecak, 4, 10–16; Stepputat, “Performing Kecak,” 70.

47. Dibia, Kecak, 20–24.

48. Plot summary in Dibia, 37.

49. Dibia, 7–8; Kendra Stepputat, “Kecak behind the Scenes—Investigating the Kecak Network,” in Dance Ethnography and Global Perspectives: Identity, Embodiment, Culture, ed. Linda E. Dankworth and Ann R. David (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 117.

50. Tantri Yuliandini, “Limbak, Rina: Two Generations of ‘Kecak’ Dancers,” Jakarta Post, 18 May 2002, cited in Stepputat, “Performing Kecak,” 54.

51. Ronaldo Morelos, “Angels of Bali: The Sanghyang Dedari Trance Performance Tradition,” in Intercultural Music: Creation and Interpretation, ed. Sally Macarthur, Bruce Crossman, and Ronaldo Morelos (Grosvenor Place: Australian Music Centre, 2007): 90–100; personal communication from Jeremy Grimshaw, 9 Feb. 2018.

52. Stepputat, “Performing Kecak,” 54.

53. Like the Indian version of the epic, the Indonesian version dramatizes the conflict between good and evil. It includes different deities than does the Indian text, and it is used for both moral instruction and entertainment.

54. Michel Picard, Bali: Cultural Tourism and Touristic Culture, trans. Diana Darling (Singapore: Archipelago Press, 1996), 20–23.

55. Picard, 25–28.

56. Kendra Stepputat, “Kecak Ramayana: Tourists in Search for the ‘Real Thing,’” in Hybridity in the Performing Arts of Southeast Asia, ed. Mohd. Anis Md. Nor, Patricia Matusky, Tan Sooi Beng, Jacqueline-Pugh Kitingan, and Felicidad Prudente (Kuala Lumpur: Nusantara Performing Arts Research Centre, 2011), 43; Dibia, Kecak, 8–9; Stepputat, “Performing Kecak,” 56–57.

57. Stepputat, “Kecak behind the Scenes,” 118–19.

58. Mark Aarons, “Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide,” in The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalized Vengeance? ed. David A. Blumenthal and Timothy L. H. McCormack (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2008), 79–82; Picard, Bali, 40–42.

59. Stepputat, “Performing Kecak,” 58–60.

60. Stepputat, “Kecak behind the Scenes,” 121–22. On music in the New Order see Margaret Kartomi, “Music, Dance, and Ritual in Ternate and Tidore,” in Culture and Society in New Order Indonesia, ed. Virginia Matheson Hooker (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993), 187–89, 206–7.

61. Dibia, Kecak, 30, 57–58; Stepputat, “Performing Kecak,” 58–60; Stepputat, “Kecak behind the Scenes,” 127–28.

62. Stepputat, “Kecak behind the Scenes,” 121–24.

63. Eric Hobsbawm, “Introduction: Inventing Traditions,” in The Invention of Tradition, ed. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 4–6, 9, 12, 13.

64. R. H. Bruce Lockhart, Return to Malaya (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1936), 345.

65. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, “Theorizing Heritage,” Ethnomusicology 39, no. 3 (Autumn 1995): 373–79.

Page 247 →66. “Animal Instinct,” broadcast on National Geographic Channel, 1996, quoted in Stepputat, “Kecak Ramayana,” 43.

67. Maria Mendonça, “Gamelan Performance Outside Indonesia ‘Setting Sail’: Babar Layar and Notions of ‘Bi-musicality,’” Asian Music 42, no. 2 (Summer/Fall 2011): 57; Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 77–114.

68. David Ruffer, “Gamelan Alun Madu . . .” Seleh Notes 8, no. 3 (2001): 12, as cited in Maria Mendonça, “Gamelan in Britain: Communitas, Affinity, and Other Stories” (PhD diss., Wesleyan University, 2002), 291; Judith Becker, “One Perspective on Gamelan in America,” Asian Music 15, no. 1 (1983): 81–89.

69. Mendonça, “Gamelan in Britain,” 283–94; Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 106–14.

70. Anna Tsing, Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 4–5.

71. Laurie Margot Ross, The Encoded Cirebon Mask: Materiality, Flow, and Meaning along Java’s Islamic Northwest Coast (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 64–67.

72. Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, xiii.

73. Sumarsam, 6.

74. Andrew Weintraub, Dangdut Stories: A Social and Musical History of Indonesia’s Most Popular Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 177, 194–96.

75. On tradition and novelty see Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 42–53.

1. Lev Tcherenkov and Stéphane Laederich, The Rroma (Basel: Schwabe, 2004), 1:16–17, 72; Angus Fraser, The Gypsies (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), 11–44.

2. Stephen Berman, “Gypsies: A National Group or a Social Group?” Refugee Survey Quarterly 13, no. 4 (Dec. 1994): 51–61.

3. Fraser, The Gypsies, 57, 109–12.

4. Tcherenkov and Laederich, The Rroma, 1:8, 118–40.

5. Fraser, The Gypsies, 257–70; see also “Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945,” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/genocide-of-european-roma-gypsies-1939-1945; “Roma Victims of the Holocaust: Roma in Auschwitz,” Jewish Virtual Museum, www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/roma-gypsies-in-auschwitz; Petra Gelbart and Aleisa Fishman, Voices on Antisemitism, a podcast series of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, www.ushmm.org/m/audio/voa_20140306.mp3

6. I owe this information to Lynn Hooker. For detailed updates, see www.errc.org

7. For the material about Romungro and Vlach Roma musicians throughout this section, I am indebted to a set of teaching notes given to me by Lynn Hooker. My thanks to Professor Hooker for sharing them.

8. David E. Schneider, Bartók, Hungary, and the Renewal of Tradition: Case Studies in the Intersection of Modernity and Nationality (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 26.

9. Lynn M. Hooker, “Turks, Hungarians, and Gypsies on Stage: Exoticism and Auto-Exoticism in Opera and Operetta,” Hungarian Studies 27, no. 2 (2013): 295–97. See also Page 248 →Lynn M. Hooker, Redefining Hungarian Music from Liszt to Bartók (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 35–45.

10. Hooker, “Turks, Hungarians, and Gypsies,” 295–97; Schneider, Bartók, Hungary, 15–26.

11. Gábor Mátray, quoted in Bálint Sárosi, Gypsy Music (Budapest: Corvina, 1978), 144; and Jonathan Bellman, The Style Hongrois in the Music of Western Europe (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), 178. This section of my chapter draws on Hooker, Redefining Hungarian Music, 78–94.

12. Hooker, Redefining Hungarian Music, 133–40, 150–53.

13. Hooker, Redefining Hungarian Music, 82–88.

14. See Katalin Kovalcsik, “The Music of the Roma in Hungary,” Rombase, Sept. 2003, 1–3, http://rombase.uni-graz.at/cd/data/music/countries/data/hungary.en.pdf

15. Other Vlach Roma groups elsewhere in Europe have their own musical styles that do include instruments. See Tcherenkov and Laederich, The Rroma, 2:709–11.

16. Translation from the liner notes to Gypsy Folk Songs from Hungary, collected and edited by Rudolf Víg (Hungaroton SLPX18028-29, 1976).

17. Hungarian lyrics translated by the author.

18. A video example is available in Jeremy Marre’s film The Romany Trail (Harcourt Films, 1981), part 2, timepoint 1:18:29.

19. Lynn Hooker, “Controlling the Liminal Power of Performance: Hungarian Scholars and Romani Musicians in the Hungarian Folk Revival,” Twentieth-Century Music 3, no. 1 (March 2007): 51–72.

20. Philip V. Bohlman, World Music: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), xiv–xv, 143–50.

21. See Miriam Whaples, “Early Exoticism Revisited,” in The Exotic in Western Music, ed. Jonathan Bellman (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998), 3–25; and Catherine Mayes, “Turkish and Hungarian-Gypsy Styles,” in The Oxford Handbook of Topic Theory, ed. Danuta Mirka (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 214–37.

22. According to Jonathan Bellman this may be the first example of the Romungro “music for listening” style to appear in Viennese classical music. Bellman, The Style Hongrois, 49.

23. Bálint Sárosi, Gypsy Music, trans. Fred Macnicol (Budapest: Corvina, 1978), 62–65.

24. Matthew Head, “Haydn’s Exoticisms: Difference and the Enlightenment,” in The Cambridge Companion to Haydn, ed. Caryl Clark (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 79.

25. See Bellman, The Style Hongrois, 69–92.

26. Franz Liszt, The Gipsy in Music, trans. Edwin Evans, 2 vols. (London: W. Reeves, 1926), 1:82.

27. Liszt, 2:306.

28. Frantz Fanon, “Racism and Culture,” in Toward the African Revolution, trans. Haakon Chevalier (New York: Grove Press, 1967), 34–35; Jonathan Bellman, introduction to The Exotic in Western Music (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998), ix.

29. Ralph Locke, Musical Exoticism: Images and Reflections (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), esp. 1–2, 8–12.

Page 249 →30. I owe this idea to Lynn Hooker; personal communication with the author, 15 May 2018.

31. Dana Gooley, The Virtuoso Liszt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 129–30, 140–51.

32. Alaina Lemon, Between Two Fires: Gypsy Performance and Romani Memory from Pushkin to Post-Socialism (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000), 1–5. Lynn Hooker notes that the “Gypsy punk” band Gogol Bordello makes an identical point in their song “Break the Spell,” from Trans-Continental Hustle (American Recordings, 2010).

33. Stuart Hall, “Race: The Floating Signifier,” transcript, 9. Media Education Foundation, https://shop.mediaed.org/race-the-floating-signifier-p173.aspx

34. Jewish Telegraphic Agency, “Roma, Jews in Hungary Laud Gypsy Singer’s Eurovision Progress,” 12 May 2017, www.jta.org/2017/05/12/culture/gypises-jews-in-hungary-celebrate-roma-singers-progress-in-eurovision-song-contest

35. Paul Jordan, “The 2017 Eurovision Song Contest Reaches Over 180 Million Viewers,” 23 May 2017, https://eurovision.tv/story/Eurovision-2017-reaches-more-than-180-million; “Eurovision Song Contest: Facts and Figures,” Eurovision Song Contest website, https://eurovision.tv/about/facts-and-figures

36. Elise Morton, “Eurovision 2017: Why This Mix of Camp and Nationalism Still Matters,” Calvert Journal (London), 11 May 2017, www.calvertjournal.com/opinion/show/8260/eurovision-2017-nationalism-russia-ukraine

37. Carol Silverman, Romani Routes: Cultural Politics and Balkan Music in Diaspora (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 172–74.

38. Bernard Rorke, “10 Things They Said about Roma in Hungary,” European Roma Rights Centre Blog, 27 Oct. 2015, www.errc.org/blog/10-things-they-said-about-roma-in-hungary/83. See also Emily L. Mahoney, “It’s Hard to Be a Gypsy in My Town,” Cronkite News Borderlands Project, 11 July 2016, https://cronkitenews.azpbs.org/buffett/hungary/roma-village

39. Helena Nilsson, “Joci Pápai Is Hungary’s Choice for Eurovision 2017,” Eurovision Song Contest website, 18 Feb. 2017, https://eurovision.tv/story/joci-papai-is-hungary-s-choice-for-eurovision-2017; “Hungary in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017,” Wikipedia, https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary_in_the_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2017

40. Silverman, Romani Routes, 241.

41. Paul Jordan, “Ukraine Is Ready to Celebrate Diversity in 2017,” Eurovision Song Contest website, 30 Jan. 2017, https://eurovision.tv/story/ukraine-is-ready-to-celebrate-diversity-in-2017

42. Quoted in Yulia Kryvinchuk, “What Does Celebrate Diversity Mean?” Eurovision Song Contest website, 10 May 2017, https://eurovision.tv/story/meaning-of-celebrate-diversity-2017

43. “22 Pictures Show How Eurovision Is Changing Kyiv,” Hromadske International (Ukraine), English version, 26 April 2017, https://en.hromadske.ua/posts/how-eurovision-is-changing-kyiv

44. Sergey Movchan, “The Reconstruction of Kyiv for Eurovision and the Tradition of Potemkin Villages,” trans. Roksolana Mashkova and Rebekah Switala, Political Critique: Krytyka Polityczna & European Alternatives, 8 May 2017, http://politicalcritique.org/cee/ukraine/2017/reconstruction-kyiv-eurovision-potemkin

Page 250 →45. Arkadiy Bushchenko, Ukrainian Helsinki Human Rights Union, “Official Appeal to Volodymir Hroisman Due with Cleansing of the Roma Settlements during the Preparation of the 2017 Eurovision Song Contest,” 18 April 2017, https://helsinki.org.ua/en/appeals/official-appeal-to-volodymir-hroisman-due-with-cleansing-of-the-roma-settlements-during-the-preparation-of-the-2017-eurovision-song-contest

46. Movchan, “The Reconstruction of Kyiv.”

47. The “old-style” folk song, identified by the composer and folk-song collector Béla Bartók, was characterized by an open-ended formal pattern, without repeated music to close the verse. See Bartók, “Hungarian Peasant Music” (1933), in Béla Bartók Essays, ed. Benjamin Suchoff (New York: St. Martin’s, 1976), 80–102.

48. “Interview: Joci Pápai on One-Man Shows, Singing in the Shower and the Value of a Romani Boy from Hungary.” Good Evening Europe, 21 Feb. 2017, www.goodeveningeurope.net/2017/02/21/interview-joci-papai-on-the-importance-of-being-alone-singing-in-the-shower-and-being-a-romani-boy-from-hungary

49. My analysis here is indebted to refinements from Lynn Hooker; personal communication with the author, 15 May 2018.

50. See Carol Silverman, “Trafficking in the Exotic with ‘Gypsy’ Music: Balkan Roma, Cosmopolitanism, and ‘World Music’ Festivals,” in Balkan Popular Culture and the Ottoman Ecumene, ed. Donna A. Buchanan (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2007), 348–52; Reuters, “Croatia’s ‘Mr. Voice’ and Hungarian Gypsy Singer among Eurovision Finalists,” 12 May 2017, www.reuters.com/article/us-music-eurovision/croatias-mr-voice-and-hungarian-gypsy-singer-among-eurovision-finalists-idUSKBN1881BE

51. Anikó Imre, “Roma Music and Transnational Homelessness,” Third Text 22, no. 3 (May 2008): 325–36.

52. Imre, 333–36; Silverman, Romani Routes, 174–75.

53. Silverman, Romani Routes, 236.

54. Peter Vermeersch, “Roma Mobilization and Participation: Obstacles and Opportunities,” in Realizing Roma Rights, ed. Jacqueline Bhabha, Andrzej Mirga, and Margareta Matache (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017): 200–213; “Who We Are,” European Roma Rights Centre website, www.errc.org/about-us-overview

55. Valeriu Nicolae and Hannah Slavik, Roma Diplomacy (New York: International Debate Education Association, 2007), x.

56. Adriana Helbig, “‘Play for Me, Old Gypsy’: Music as Political Resource in the Roma Rights Movement in Ukraine” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2005), 3–15, 25–34, 159–75.

57. Lynn Hooker, “Dancing on the Edge of a Volcano: East European Roma Performers Respond to Social Transformation,” Hungarian Studies 25, no. 2 (2011): 295–99.

1. More than 12 million Africans were sent to the Americas, but only 10 million survived the brutally difficult journey. These figures are from Peter Stearns, Cultures in Motion: Mapping Key Concepts and Their Imprints in World History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), 66–73. Estimates of lives lost in the slave trade have been controversial: see “Introduction: Gainers and Losers in the Atlantic Slave Trade,” in The Atlantic Slave Trade: Page 251 →Effects on Economies, Societies, and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe, ed. Joseph E. Inikori and Stanley L. Engerman (Durham: Duke University Press, 1992), 5–7; Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), xiii–xv; Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, ed. David Eltis, www.slavevoyages.org; and Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People without History (1982; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 131–35, 149–57, 195–231.

2. Henry Louis Gates, “Editor’s Introduction: Writing ‘Race’ and the Difference It Makes,” Critical Inquiry 12, no. 1 (Autumn 1985): 2–9. Brian Currid has compared the situations of racialized Romani and African American musicians; see Brian Currid, “‘Gypsy Violins’ and ‘Hot Rhythms’: Race, Popular Music, and Governmentality,” in Western Music and Race, ed. Julie Brown (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007): 37–48.

3. Katrina Dyonne Thompson, Ring Shout, Wheel About (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2014), 8–9, 42–68.

4. Dena Epstein, “African Music in British and French America,” Musical Quarterly 59, no. 1 (1973): 64–67, 79–89; Thompson, Ring Shout, 99–128.

5. Gerhard Kubik, Africa and the Blues (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1999), 12, 15–20; Dena Epstein, “The Folk Banjo: A Documentary History,” Ethnomusicology 19, no. 3 (1975): 347–71. The material in this section draws on Kubik’s book, and the music examples are drawn from the recording that accompanies the book.

6. Gwendolyn Midlo Hall argues that some groups of people were able to remain together; see Hall, Slavery and African Ethnicities, 22–79, 165–72.

7. Paul E. Lovejoy, “The African Diaspora: Revisionist Interpretations of Ethnicity, Culture and Religion under Slavery,” Studies in the World History of Slavery, Abolition and Emancipation 2, no. 1 (1997): n.p. Ronald Radano has critiqued the idea of “survivals” in Lying Up a Nation: Race and Black Music (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 5–13, 55–63.

8. V. Kofi Agawu, The African Imagination in Music (Oxford: Oxford Scholarship Online, 2016), 308.

9. Jeff Todd Titon, Early Downhome Blues: A Musical and Cultural Analysis (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), 44.

10. Mississippi Matilda Powell, Sonny Boy Nelson, and Willie Harris Jr., “Hard Workin’ Woman,” originally issued as Bluebird B6812 (78 rpm), 1936.

11. Kubik, Africa and the Blues, 82–93.

12. Kubik, 74–75.

13. Kubik, 200–203.

14. Thompson, Ring Shout, esp. 2–7 and chap. 3; Karen Sotiropoulos, Staging Race: Black Performers in Turn of the Century America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 1.

15. Peter C. Muir, Long Lost Blues: Popular Blues in America, 1850–1920 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010); Paige A. McGinley, Staging the Blues: From Tent Shows to Tourism (Durham: Duke University Press, 2014), 1–127; Elijah Wald, Escaping the Delta: Robert Johnson and the Invention of the Blues (New York: Harper Collins, 2004), 4–42.

16. McGinley, Staging the Blues, 129–75; Danielle Fosler-Lussier, Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy (Oakland: University of California Press, 2015), 148–52.

Page 252 →17. See, e.g., Resolution of the Writers’ Union of Canada (1992), quoted in Bruce Ziff and Pratima V. Rao, “Introduction to Cultural Appropriation: A Framework for Analysis,” in Borrowed Power: Essays on Cultural Appropriation, ed. Bruce Ziff and Pratima V. Rao (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997), 1.

18. Rupert Till, “The Blues Blueprint: The Blues in the Music of the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and Led Zeppelin,” in Cross the Water Blues: African American Music in Europe, ed. Neil A. Wynn (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997), 195–97; Susan Oehler Herrick, “Performing Blues and Navigating Race in Transcultural Contexts,” in Issues in African American Music: Power, Gender, Race, Representation, ed. Portia K. Maultsby and Mellonee V. Burnim (London: Routledge, 2017), 20–23.

19. It is difficult to pin down a source for this widely quoted statement. It is unattributed in “Muddy Waters,” The Penguin Encyclopedia of Popular Music, ed. Donald Clarke (London: Viking, 1989), 1217.

20. Ulrich Adelt, “Trying to Find an Identity: Eric Clapton’s Changing Conception of Blackness,” Popular Music and Society 31, no. 4 (Oct. 2008): 433–52.

21. Leon F. Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 452, quoted in Christian O’Connell, Blues, How Do You Do? Paul Oliver and the Transatlantic Story of the Blues (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2015), 3.

22. Mike Baker and John Pidgeon, “‘It Takes a Great Deal of Studying and Discipline for Me to Sing the Blues” [1994], in Guitar Player Presents: Clapton Beck Page, ed. Michael Molenda (New York: Backbeat Books, 2010), 66.

23. Stuart Hall, “The Spectacle of the ‘Other,’” in Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices, ed. Stuart Hall (Milton Keynes: Open University, 1997), 243–49; O’Connell, Blues, 2–9.

24. See Martin Stokes, introduction to Ethnicity, Identity, and Music: The Musical Construction of Place (Oxford: Berg, 1994), 6–7.

25. Titon, Early Downhome Blues, 31.

26. Lynn Abbott and Doug Seroff, Ragged but Right: Black Traveling Shows, “Coon Songs,” and the Dark Pathway to Blues and Jazz (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007). On “discovery” by the revival see Jeff Todd Titon, “Reconstructing the Blues: Reflections on the 1960s Blues Revival,” in Transforming Tradition: Folk Music Revivals Examined, ed. Neil V. Rosenberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 222–23; Herrick, “Performing Blues,” 24–42; and Titon, Early Downhome Blues, 50–51.

27. Robert M. W. Dixon and John Godrich, Recording the Blues (New York: Stein and Day, 1970); Sandra R. Lieb, Mother of the Blues: A Study of Ma Rainey (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1981), 1–48.

28. Titon, Early Downhome Blues, 45–51.

29. Portia K. Maultsby, “The Politics of Race Erasure in Defining Black Popular Music Origins,” in Maultsby and Burnim, Issues in African American Music, 20–23.

30. Hall, “The Spectacle of the ‘Other,’” 257–64.

31. The term is associated with the theorist Gayatri Spivak, who has since disavowed its use. See Sara Danius, Stefan Jonsson, and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, “An Interview with Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak,” boundary 2 20, no. 2 (Summer 1993): 24–50.

Page 253 →32. LeRoi Jones [Amiri Baraka], Blues People: Negro Music in White America (New York: William Morrow, 1963), 148.

33. Amiri Baraka, “The Great Music Robbery,” in Amiri Baraka and Amina Baraka, The Music: Reflections on Jazz and Blues (New York: William Morrow, 1987), 331.

34. Radano, Lying Up a Nation, 39–42, 168–69.

35. Amiri Baraka, “Jazz and the White Critic” (1963), in Black Music (New York: Apollo, 1968), 13, quoted in Joel Rudinow, “Race, Ethnicity, Expressive Authenticity: Can White People Sing the Blues?” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 52, no. 1 (Winter 1994): 135.

36. See Nancy Fraser, “Redistribution or Recognition? A Critique of Justice Truncated,” in Redistribution or Recognition? A Political-Philosophical Exchange, ed. Nancy Fraser and Axel Honneth (London: Verso, 2003), 9–26; and Briahna Joy Gray, “The Question of Cultural Appropriation,” Current Affairs, 6 Sept. 2017, www.currentaffairs.org/2017/09/the-question-of-cultural-appropriation

37. Kwame Anthony Appiah, “Whose Culture Is It, Anyway?” in Cultural Heritage Issues: The Legacy of Conquest, Colonization, and Commerce, ed. James A. R. Nafziger and Ann M. Nigorski (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2010), 210.

38. Thomas DeFrantz, “American Traditions in Dance and Its Study,” lecture given at Ohio State University, 5 Feb. 2019.

39. Dena Epstein, Sinful Tunes and Spirituals: Black Folk Music to the Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), 100–111, 217–37; Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans: A History, 3rd ed. (New York: Norton, 1997), 35–41, 71–80; Sylvia R. Frey and Betty Wood, Come Shouting to Zion: African American Protestantism in the American South and British Caribbean to 1830 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 65–79.

40. Jon Cruz, Culture on the Margins: The Black Spiritual and the Rise of American Cultural Interpretation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 67–69.

41. Southern, The Music of Black Americans, 71–84.

42. John F. Watson, Methodist Error, in Readings in Black American Music, ed. Eileen Southern, 2nd ed. (New York: W.W. Norton, 1983), 63. See also Epstein, Sinful Tunes and Spirituals, 196–99.

43. William T. Dargan, Lining Out the Word: Dr. Watts Hymn Singing in the Music of Black Americans (Berkeley: University of California Press and Columbia College Chicago: Center for Black Music Research, 2006), 103–19.

44. Henry Russell, Cheer, Boys, Cheer! (1895), 85, quoted in Portia Maultsby, “Traditional Music: African-American,” USA, §2, 2, Grove Music Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.28794

45. Bernice Johnson Reagon, If You Don’t Go, Don’t Hinder Me: The African American Song Tradition (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), 68.

46. Lawrence Levine, “The Antebellum Period: Communal Coherence and Individual Expression,” in Maultsby and Burnim, Issues in African American Music, 411, 412, 415.

47. For selection of the examples in this section I am indebted to the unpublished research of Tracie Parker.

48. Charles Keil, “Participatory Discrepancies and the Power of Music,” Cultural Anthropology 2, no. 3 (August 1987): 275–83.

Page 254 →49. Alan Lomax, liner notes to The Gospel Ship: Baptist Hymns & White Spirituals from the Southern Mountains (1977; New World Records 80294, 1994).

50. George Pullen Jackson, White and Negro Spirituals: Their Life Span and Kinship (New York: J. J. Augustin, 1943), 260–69; Reagon, If You Don’t Go, 77–82.

51. Reagon, If You Don’t Go, 78.

52. Radano, Lying Up a Nation, 4.

53. Radano, 168–69.

54. H. H. Wright, “Jubilee Songs at Chapel Exercises,” quoted in Sandra Jean Graham, Spirituals and the Birth of a Black Entertainment Industry (Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2017), 30.

55. Ella Sheppard Moore, “Historical Sketch,” 43; as quoted in Graham, Spirituals, 31.

56. Graham, Spirituals, 62–73. This section relies throughout on Graham’s history.

57. Graham, xiii, 51–72, 83–100.

58. Graham, 48.

59. Graham, 50, 74.

60. Graham, 74–81.

61. See Marva Griffin Carter, “The ‘New Negro’ Choral Legacy of Hall Johnson,” in Chorus and Community, ed. Karen Ahlquist (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006), 185–201.

62. Gates, “Editor’s Introduction,” 12–15.

63. Zora Neale Hurston, “Spirituals and Neo-spirituals,” in The Sanctified Church (Berkeley, CA: Turtle Island, 1981), 80. See also Shelley Eversley, The Real Negro: The Question of Authenticity in Twentieth-Century African American Literature (London: Routledge, 2004), 26.

64. Marti K. Newland, “Sounding ‘Black’: An Ethnography of Racialized Vocality at Fisk University” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2014), 40–73.

65. See Olly Wilson, “Negotiating Blackness in Western Art Music,” in Maultsby and Burnim, Issues in African American Music, 66–67, 72–74.

1. Jonathan Sterne, MP3: The Meaning of a Format (Durham: Duke University Press, 2012), 9–11. On the mediation of concert music see the essays in Consuming Music: Individuals, Institutions, Communities, 1730–1830, ed. Emily H. Green and Catherine Mayes (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2017).

2. Mark Katz, Capturing Sound: How Technology Has Changed Music (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 74. This chapter originated in lessons taught from Katz’s book; I am broadly indebted to his thinking throughout.

3. Tan Sooi Beng, “The 78 RPM Record Industry in Malaya prior to World War II,” Asian Music 28, no. 1 (Fall/Winter 1996–97): 1.

4. Geoffrey Jones, “The Gramophone Company: An Anglo-American Multinational,” Business History Review 59, no. 1 (Spring 1985): 77; Ali Jihad Racy, “Record Industry and Egyptian Traditional Music: 1904–1932,” Ethnomusicology 20, no. 1 (Jan. 1976): 27–28; Tan, “The 78 RPM Record Industry,” 3. Christina Lubinski and Andreas Steen, “Traveling Entrepreneurs, Traveling Sounds: The Early Gramophone Business in India and China,” Itinerario 41, no. 2 (2017): 275–303.

Page 255 →5. Paul Vernon, “Odeon Records: Their Ethnic Output,” www.mustrad.org.uk.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/articles/odeon.htm; Bruno Sébald, “L’édition du disque,” Revue de la BNF 3, no. 33 (2009): 34, www.cairn.info/revue-de-la-bibliotheque-nationale-de-france-2009-3-page-30.html; Lubinski and Steen, “Traveling Entrepreneurs,” 290.

6. Tan, “The 78 RPM Record Industry,” 4, 10.

7. Wolfgang Bender, “Modern African Music—An Autonomous Music,” in Sounds of Change—Social and Political Features of Music in Africa, ed. Stig-Magnus Thorsén (Stockholm: Sida, 2004): 89–90; Lubinski and Steen, “Traveling Entrepreneurs,” 284.

8. Drago Kunej, “Intertwinement of Croatian and Slovenian Musical Heritage on the Oldest Gramophone Records,” Croatian Journal of Ethnology and Folklore Research 51, no. 1 (2014): 148–49.

9. Tan, “The 78 RPM Record Industry,” 3, 23, 7.

10. Hinda Ouijjani, “Le fonds de disques 78 tours Pathé de musique arabe et orientale donné aux Archives de la Parole et au Musée de la Parole et du Geste de l’Université de Paris: 1911–1930” (The collection of Pathé 78 rpm discs of Arab and Oriental music given to the Archives de la Parole and the Musée de la Parole et du Geste of the University of Paris, 1911–1930), Sonorités (Bulletin de l’AFAS) 38 (2012): 1–14; and 39 (2013): 2–9, http://afas.revues.org/2835

11. Ali Jihad Racy, “Sound Recording in the Life of Early Arab-American Immigrants,” Revue des traditions musicales des mondes Arabe et Méditerranéen 5 (2011): 43–44.

12. Racy, “Record Industry and Egyptian Traditional Music,” 41–42.

13. Pekka Gronow, “Ethnic Recordings: An Introduction,” in American Folklife Center, Ethnic Recordings in America: A Neglected Heritage (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1982), 1–31; William Howland Kenney, Recorded Music in American Life: The Phonograph and Popular Memory, 1890–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 65–87.

14. Drago Kunej and Rebeka Kunej, Music from Both Sides: Gramophone Records Made by Matija Arko and the Hoyer Trio (Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, 2017), 33–57; and Richard K. Spottswood, ed., Ethnic Music on Records: A Discography of Ethnic Recordings Produced in the United States, 1893 to 1942 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990).

15. Emilie Da Lage-Py, “Les collections de disques de musiques du monde entre patrimonialisation et marchandisation” (Collections of music records of the world between heritage and marketing), Culture & musées, no. 1 (2003): 89–90.

16. Darius Milhaud, “Chronique des disques” (Chronicle of recordings), Art et décoration: Revue mensuelle d’art moderne (Oct. 1930): 8.

17. Percy Grainger, “Collecting with the Phonograph,” Journal of the Folk-Song Society 3, no. 12 (May 1908): 147.

18. Graham Freeman, “‘That Chief Undercurrent of My Mind’: Percy Grainger and the Aesthetics of English Folk Song,” Folk Music Journal 9, no. 4 (2009): 608–11.

19. “Special General Meeting,” Journal of the Folk-Song Society 8, no. 35 (Dec. 1931): x–xi.

20. On the threat of homogenization see Katz, Capturing Sound, 13–14. See also Matthew Gelbart, The Invention of “Folk Music” and “Art Music” (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 272–77.

21. Bruno Nettl, “Hanging On for Dear Life: Archives and Preservation,” in The Study Page 256 →of Ethnomusicology: Thirty-One Issues and Concepts (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2005), 167; Graham Freeman, “‘It Wants All the Creases Ironing Out’: Percy Grainger, the Folk Song Society, and the Ideology of the Archive,” Music and Letters 92, no. 3 (2011): 412–16; Martin Stokes, introduction to Ethnicity, Identity, and Music: The Musical Construction of Place (Oxford: Berg, 1994), 6–7; Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, “Theorizing Heritage,” Ethnomusicology 39, no. 3 (Autumn 1995): 373–79.

22. Nestór García Canclini, Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Modernity, trans. Christopher L. Chiappari and Silvia L. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 223–24; Diana Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 18–22; Nathaniel G. Lew, “‘Words and Music That Are Forever England’: The Pilgrim’s Progress and the Pitfalls of Nostalgia,” Vaughan Williams Essays (2002): 175–206; Freeman, “‘It Wants All the Creases Ironing Out,’” 412.

23. Meltem Ahiska, “Occidentalism: The Historical Fantasy of the Modern,” South Atlantic Quarterly 102, no. 2/3 (Spring–Summer 2003): 351–79.

24. Ziya Gökalp, The Principles of Turkism, ed. and trans. Robert Devereux (Leiden: Brill, 1968), 99, quoted in Erol Koymen, “A Musical Minefield: Composing the Turkish Nation-State,” paper delivered at the Joint Conference of the AMS-Southwest Chapter and SEM-Southern Plains Chapter, http://ams-sw.org/Proceedings/AMS-SW_V3Spring2014Koymen.pdf. See also Martin Stokes, The Arabesk Debate: Music and Musicians in Modern Turkey (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992), 21–49.

25. Orhan Tekelioğlu, “The Rise of a Spontaneous Synthesis: The Historical Background of Turkish Popular Music,” Middle Eastern Studies 32, no. 2 (1996): 196–98, 205–7; Edward Said, Orientalism (1978; New York: Vintage, 1994), esp. 4–8.

26. Eric Hobsbawm, “Introduction: Inventing Tradition,” in The Invention of Tradition, ed. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 4–6, 9, 12, 13.

27. Robert C. Lancefield, “Musical Traces’ Retraceable Paths: The Repatriation of Recorded Sound,” Journal of Folklore Research 35, no. 1 (Jan.–April 1998): 47.

28. See Resolution of the Writers’ Union of Canada (1992), cited in Bruce Ziff and Pratima V. Rao, “Introduction to Cultural Appropriation: A Framework for Analysis,” in Borrowed Power: Essays on Cultural Appropriation, ed. Bruce Ziff and Pratima V. Rao (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997), 1.

29. Aaron Fox, “Repatriation as Reanimation through Reciprocity,” in The Cambridge History of World Music, ed. Philip V. Bohlman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 533–34, 537.

30. Lancefield, “Musical Traces’ Retraceable Paths,” 53–54.

31. Fox, “Repatriation as Reanimation,” 533–35; Lancefield, “Musical Traces’ Retraceable Paths,” 54.

32. Lancefield, “Musical Traces’ Retraceable Paths,” 48.

33. This paragraph and the next two are based on Aaron Fox, “Repatriation as Reanimation,” 522–54.

34. “Rare Indigenous Music Recordings Go Home Again,” Columbia University News, https://vimeo.com/68637578

Page 257 →35. See also Thomas R. Hilder, “Repatriation, Revival and Transmission: The Politics of a Sámi Musical Heritage,” Ethnomusicology Forum 21, no. 2 (August 2012): 170.

36. Katz, Capturing Sound, 100–101.

37. Mezz Mezzrow with Bernard Wolfe, Really the Blues (London: Flamingo, 1993), 325–26, quoted in Albin J. Zak III, The Poetics of Rock: Cutting Tracks, Making Records (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 7.

38. Michael Khoury, “A Look at Lightning: The Life and Compositions of Halim El-Dabh,” in The Arab Avant-Garde: Music, Politics, Modernity, ed. Thomas Burkhalter, Kay Dickinson, and Benjamin J. Harbert (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2013), 171–72.

39. Brian Kane, Sound Unseen: Acousmatic Sound in Theory and Practice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 4–6.

40. Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” in Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Schocken Books, 1968), 218–24; Luis-Manuel Garcia, “On and On: Repetition as Process and Pleasure in Electronic Dance Music,” Music Theory Online 11, no. 4 (Oct. 2005), para. 3.1, www.mtosmt.org/issues/mto.05.11.4/mto.05.11.4.garcia.pdf; Jonathan Sterne, The Audible Past: Cultural Origins of Sound Reproduction (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 25–26, 217–22.

41. Jean Baudrillard, The Ecstasy of Communication, trans. Bernard and Caroline Schutze (Brooklyn, NY: Autonomedia, 1988), 11.

42. Steven Feld, Sound and Sentiment: Birds, Weeping, Poetics, and Song in Kaluli Expression, 3rd ed. (Durham: Duke University Press, 2012), xiv–xix.

43. Steven Feld, “Voices of the Rainforest,” Public Culture 4, no. 1 (Fall 1991): 131–40.

44. Umberto Eco, Travels in Hyperreality: Essays, trans. William Weaver (1973; San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1983), 43.

45. Feld, “Voices of the Rainforest,” 137–38.

46. Katz, Capturing Sound, 114–36; Mark Katz, Groove Music: The Art and Culture of the Hip Hop DJ (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), esp. 51–69, 127–52.

47. Katz, Capturing Sound, 137–57.

48. Luis-Manuel Garcia, “‘Can You Feel It, Too?’: Intimacy and Affect at Electronic Dance Music Events in Paris, Chicago, and Berlin” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2011), 50–51.

49. The Black Madonna at Lente Kabinet Festival 2017, https://soundcloud.com/dkmntl/the-black-madonna-at-lente-kabinet-festival-2017. Fans often try to identify tracks through social media. For a list of tracks identified in the Lente Festival set, see www.mixesdb.com/w/2017-05-27_-_The_Black_Madonna_@_Lente_Kabinet,_Het_Twiske,_Amsterdam

50. Metro Area, “Miura,” www.youtube.com/watch?v=jT9IPPuNDyg

51. Garcia, “‘Can You Feel It, Too?’” 40.

52. Garcia, 43.

53. Marea Stamper, “Artist of the Year: The Black Madonna on the Beautiful Paradox of Being a Catholic DJ,” Thump, 29 Dec. 2016, https://thump.vice.com/en_us/article/kb5pkn/artist-of-the-year-the-black-madonna-catholic-faith-essay

54. Garcia, “‘Can You Feel It, Too?’” 35, 53, 246–47, 329–32.

Page 258 →55. “This Is Pirotecnia,” http://thisispirotecnia.com/inspiration/fernanda-arrau/. For an example of Arrau’s music, entitled “Talk Talk,” see https://soundcloud.com/pirotecnia/talk-talk-fernanda-arrau

56. Michael Scott Barron, “Meet Shuja Rabbani, the Afghan Producer on a Mission to Bring EDM to Kabul,” Thump, 26 Jan. 2016, https://thump.vice.com/en_us/article/9avkaa/meet-shuja-rabbani-the-afghan-producer-on-a-mission-to-bring-edm-to-kabul. For an example of Rabbani’s music, entitled “Dark Lights Playlist,” see https://soundcloud.com/shuja-rabbani/dark-lights-playlist-volume-1

57. Sarah Weiss, “Listening to the World but Hearing Ourselves: Hybridity and Perceptions of Authenticity in World Music,” Ethnomusicology 58, no. 3 (Fall 2014): 509.

58. Martin Stokes, “Globalization and the Politics of World Music,” in The Cultural Study of Music: A Critical Introduction, ed. Martin Clayton, Trevor Herbert, and Richard Middleton (New York: Routledge, 2003), 107–9; see also Simon Frith, “The Discourse of World Music,” in Western Music and Its Others, ed. Georgina Born and David Hesmondhalgh (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 305–22.

59. Donna A. Buchanan, Performing Democracy: Bulgarian Music and Musicians in Transition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 360–72, 418–25.

60. A collection of articles describing the technique can be found at “Friends of Tuva,” www.fotuva.org/music/theory.html

1. Saskia Sassen, Territory—Authority—Rights: From Medieval to Global (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 76–82; Dilip Parameshwar Gaonkar, “Toward New Imaginaries: An Introduction,” Public Culture 14, no. 1 (Winter 2002): 8.

2. See Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (1983; London: Verso, 1991).

3. Arjun Appadurai, Fear of Small Numbers: An Essay on the Geography of Anger (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), 3–7, 49–50; James Minahan, Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups around the World (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002).

4. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 5–7.

5. Kelly M. Askew, Performing the Nation: Swahili Music and Cultural Politics in Tanzania (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 10–13; Lisa Gilman, The Dance of Politics: Gender, Performance, and Democratization in Malawi (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009), 16–19, 26–47.

6. Mark Ravina, To Stand with the Nations of the World: Japan’s Meiji Restoration in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 6–13. On “pushing” and “pulling” music, see Danielle Fosler-Lussier, “Music Pushed, Music Pulled: Cultural Diplomacy, Globalization, and Imperialism,” Diplomatic History 36, no. 1 (2012): 53–64.

7. Edward A. Shils, “Political Development in the New States,” draft (c. 1958), as quoted in Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 2.

8. Edward Said, Orientalism (1978; New York: Vintage, 1994), 7; Liping Bu, Public Health and the Modernization of China, 1865–2015 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017), 1–4.

9. Bruce M. Knauft, introduction to Critically Modern: Alternatives, Alterities, AnthropologiesPage 259 → (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 18; Ury Eppstein, The Beginnings of Western Music in Meiji Era Japan (Lewiston, NY: Edward Mellen, 1994), 3–4.

10. Eppstein, Beginnings of Western Music, 10–15.

11. William Malm, “Modern Music of Meiji Japan,” in Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture, ed. Donald H. Shively (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015), 259–65; Kōichi Nomura, “Occidental Music,” in Toyotaka Komiya, Japanese Music and Drama in the Meiji Era, trans. and adapted by Edward G. Seidensticker and Donald Keene (Tokyo: Ōbunsha, 1956), 451–58.

12. Nomura, “Occidental Music,” 460.

13. Nomura, 465–66; Bonnie Wade, Composing Japanese Musical Modernity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), 15–32; Judith Ann Herd, “Western-Influenced ‘Classical’ Music in Japan,” in The Ashgate Research Companion to Japanese Music, ed. Allison McQueen Tokita and David W. Hughes (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), 364–65.

14. Yamada’s given name is sometimes spelled Kosçak. For biographical information see Luciana Galliano, Yōgaku: Japanese Music in the Twentieth Century, trans. Martin Mayes (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2002), 43–51; and liner notes to the recording of this work by the Tokyo Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra conducted by Takuo Yuasa (Naxos 8.557971, 2007).

15. M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, Atatürk: An Intellectual Biography (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017), 199–201.

16. Hanioğlu, 202–19.

17. Emre Aracı, “The Turkish Music Reform: From Late Ottoman Times to the Early Republic,” in Turkey’s Engagement with Modernity: Conflict and Change in the Twentieth Century, ed. Celia Kerslake, Kerem Öktem, and Philip Robins (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 336–38. See also Aracı, “Giuseppe Donizetti at the Ottoman Court: A Levantine Life,” Musical Times 143, no. 1880 (Autumn 2002): 49–56.

18. Hanioğlu, Atatürk, 219–21; Ayhan Erol, “Music, Power and Symbolic Violence: The Turkish State’s Music Policies during the Early Republican Period,” European Journal of Cultural Studies 15, no. 1 (2015): 45. Experts were skeptical of these changes: see Emre Aracı, “The Life and Works of Ahmed Adnan Saygun” (PhD diss., University of Edinburgh, 1999), 36.

19. Martin Stokes, The Arabesk Debate: Music and Musicians in Modern Turkey (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992), 21–49.

20. The analysis of Saygun’s Yunus Emre here and in subsequent paragraphs is based on Aracı, “The Life and Works,” 135–63.

21. Aracı, 136, 146.

22. Saygun was a protégé of Béla Bartók, and these strategies are similar to Bartók’s. See Béla Bartók, “The Relation between Contemporary Hungarian Art Music and Folk Music,” in Béla Bartók Essays, ed. Benjamin Suchoff (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1976), 351–52.

23. Aracı, “The Life and Works,” 151n53.

24. See Jennifer L. Campbell, “Creating Something Out of Nothing: The Office of Inter-American Affairs Music Committee (1940–1941) and the Inception of a Policy for Page 260 →Musical Diplomacy,” Diplomatic History 36, no. 1 (Jan. 2012): 29–39; and Carol Hess, Representing the Good Neighbor: Music, Difference, and the Pan-American Dream (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).

25. Hye-jung Park, “From World War to Cold War: Music in US-Korea Relations, 1941–1960” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 2019), chap. 1; Or Rosenboim, The Emergence of Globalism: Visions of World Order in Britain and the United States, 1939–1950 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017), 1–15.

26. John D. Kelly and Martha Kaplan, Represented Communities: Fiji and World Decolonization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 1–22, 59; Gaonkar, “Toward New Imaginaries,” 8; Bruce Jones, Thomas Wright, et al., “The State of the International Order,” Brookings Institution Policy Paper no. 33 (Feb. 2014), 3–7, www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/intlorder_report.pdf

27. Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a Civilization (1995; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 11–17, 29–35.

28. Shils, “Political Development in the New States,” quoted in Gilman, Mandarins of the Future, 1; Gilman, Mandarins of the Future, 1–23.

29. Andrey Olkhovsky, Music under the Soviets: The Agony of an Art (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1955), 282, 284; Laurel Fay, Shostakovich: A Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 155–65.

30. Marina Frolova-Walker, “‘National in Form, Socialist in Content’: Musical Nation-Building in the Soviet Republics,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 51, no. 2 (1998): 332–39.

31. Sheila Fitzpatrick, “Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times,” in Stalinism: The Essential Readings, ed. David L. Hoffmann (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003), 164–77.

32. Viktor Suslin, “The Music of Spiritual Independence: Galina Ustvolskaya,” in Ex oriente: Ten Composers from the USSR, ed. Galina Grigorieva and Valeriia Tsenova, trans. Carolyn Dunlop (Berlin: E. Kuhn, 2002), 102–3, 114.

33. Pierre Boulez, “Nécessité d’une orientation esthétique (II)” [Necessity of an aesthetic orientation II], Canadian University Music Review 7 (1986): 61.

34. Richard Taruskin, Music in the Late Twentieth Century, vol. 5 of Oxford History of Western Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 27–38; Leslie A. Sprout, “The 1945 Stravinsky Debates: Nigg, Messiaen, and the Early Cold War in France,” Journal of Musicology 26, no. 1 (Winter 2009): 89.

35. Sprout, “The 1945 Stravinsky Debates,” 88–90.

36. Martin Brody, “‘Music for the Masses’: Milton Babbitt’s Cold War Music Theory,” Musical Quarterly 77, no. 2 (Summer 1993): 163–64; Joseph N. Straus, “The Myth of ‘Serial Tyranny’ in the 1950s and 1960s,” Musical Quarterly 83, no. 3 (Autumn 1999): 305–21; and Anne C. Shreffler, “The Myth of Empirical Historiography: A Response to Joseph N. Straus,” Musical Quarterly 84, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 30–39.

37. Peter J. Schmelz, Such Freedom, but Only Musical: Unofficial Soviet Music during the Thaw (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 7–10; Danielle Fosler-Lussier, Music Divided: Bartók’s Legacy in Cold War Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007): 164–65.

Page 261 →38. Kiril Tomoff, Virtuosi Abroad: Soviet Music and Imperial Competition during the Early Cold War, 1945–1958 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2015), 1–19, 116–45.

39. Anthony Shay, Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2002), 57–81; and Anthony Shay, “The Spectacularization of Soviet/Russian Folk Dance: Igor Moiseyev and the Invented Tradition of Staged Folk Dance,” in Oxford Handbook of Dance and Ethnicity, ed. Anthony Shay and Barbara Sellers-Young (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 236–54.

40. This paragraph and the following three are a gloss of Danielle Fosler-Lussier, Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy (Oakland: University of California Press, 2015).

41. Mark Katz, “The Case for Hip-Hop Diplomacy,” American Music Review 46, no. 2 (Spring 2017): 1–5, www.brooklyn.cuny.edu/web/aca_centers_hitchcock/AMR_46-2_Katz.pdf; and performer comments in Zach Christy, Tim Scholl, and Ben Jones, Tour of Tours: The 1964 Oberlin College Choir in the Soviet Union (film), 2015, https://vimeo.com/122021714

42. Gerald Horne, Paul Robeson: The Artist as Revolutionary (London: Pluto Press, 2016), 112, 57–64.

43. Horne, 84–85, 91; Dorothy Butler Gilliam, Paul Robeson: All-American (Washington, DC: New Republic, 1976), 71–80.

44. Horne, Paul Robeson, 101, 104–8, 114–15, 221n81; Paul Robeson Jr., The Undiscovered Paul Robeson: Quest for Freedom, 1939–1976 (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2010), 142–50; Gilliam, Paul Robeson, 137–43.

45. Shana Redmond, Anthem: Social Movements and the Sound of Solidarity in the African Diaspora (New York: New York University Press, 2013), 122–24; Horne, Paul Robeson, 121–25; Gilliam, Paul Robeson, 145–54; and Tony Perucci, Paul Robeson and the Cold War Performance Complex: Race, Madness, Activism (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012), 95–111.

46. Horne, Paul Robeson, 120, 140; Gilliam, Paul Robeson, 155–59, 163.

47. Redmond, Anthem, 124–30; Horne, Paul Robeson, 126–27; Kate Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 202–51.

48. Redmond, Anthem, 136–39; Horne, Paul Robeson, 145; Gilliam, Paul Robeson, 173.

49. Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line, 218.

50. Horne, Paul Robeson, 131–35, 147–50, 164.

51. Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line, 227–35; Robert Robinson, Black on Red: My 44 Years inside the Soviet Union (Washington, DC: Acropolis Books, 1988), 319; Martin Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York: Knopf, 1988), 352, 468.

52. BBC Wales, NJN Public Television, and NVC Arts, Speak of Me as I Am: The Rise and Fall of an American Legend (1998; DVD: Kultur, 2007), from 23:45.

53. Robeson had known of Soviet crimes since 1949, if not earlier. See Lauren McConnell, “Understanding Paul Robeson’s Soviet Experience,” Theatre History Studies 30 (2010): 147–51.

54. Uta G. Poiger, Jazz, Rock, and Rebels: Cold War Politics and American Culture in a Divided Germany (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 132–36, 150–67; Fosler-Lussier, Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy, 85–87, 145.

55. Jie Chen and Peng Deng, China since the Cultural Revolution: From Totalitarianism to Authoritarianism (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1995), 16–26.

Page 262 →56. Anthony Fung, “Deliberating Fandom and the New Wave of Chinese Pop: A Case Study of Chris Li,” Popular Music 32, no. 1 (Jan. 2013): 81.

57. Chen and Deng, China since the Cultural Revolution, 24–25.

58. Hao Huang, “Voices from Chinese Rock, Past and Present Tense: Social Commentary and Construction of Identity in Yaogun Yinyue, from Tiananmen to the Present,” Popular Music and Society 26, no. 2 (2003): 186–87.

59. Andrew F. Jones, Like a Knife: Ideology and Genre in Contemporary Chinese Music (Ithaca: Cornell University East Asia Program, 1992), 18–34.

60. My thanks to Dan Jurafsky for translating this song from Cantonese.

61. Anthony Y. H. Fung, “The Emerging (National) Popular Music Culture in China,” Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 8, no. 3 (2007): 427–31.

62. Translation by Dennis Rea, Live at the Forbidden City: Musical Encounters in China and Taiwan (Lincoln, NE: iUniverse, 2006), 105.

63. Jeroen de Kloet, China with a Cut: Globalisation, Urban Youth and Popular Music (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010), 25–36; Schmelz, Such Freedom, 13–21. See also Jolanta Pekacz, “Did Rock Smash the Wall? The Role of Rock in Political Transition,” Popular Music 13, no. 1 (1994): 41–49.

64. Huang, “Voices from Chinese Rock,” 187. See also Rea, Live at the Forbidden City, 114–19.

65. Louisa Lim, The People’s Republic of Amnesia: Tiananmen Revisited (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), esp. 3, 6, 85–88, 182–201.

66. Jeroen de Kloet, “Rock in a Hard Place: Commercial Fantasies in China’s Music Industry,” in Media in China: Consumption, Content, and Crisis, ed. Stephanie Hemelryk Donald, Michael Keane, and Yin Hong (London: Routledge Curzon, 2002), 101–2; Dennis Rea, “Ambushed from All Sides: Rock Music as a Force for Change in China,” in The Routledge History of Social Protest in Popular Music, ed. Jonathan C. Friedman (New York: Routledge, 2013), 380–81.

67. Fung, “Deliberating Fandom,” 80; Jeroen de Kloet, “Popular Music and Youth in Urban China: The Dakou Generation,” China Quarterly 183 (Sept. 2005): 611–15.

68. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, “Intangible Heritage as Metacultural Production,” Museum International 56, no. 1–2 (2004): 52–65.

69. Dipesh Chakrabarty, “The Legacies of Bandung: Decolonization and the Politics of Culture,” in Making a World after Empire: The Bandung Moment and Its Political Afterlives, ed. Christopher J. Lee (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010), 53–55. See also Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 65; and Rob Kroes, “American Empire and Cultural Imperialism: A View from the Receiving End,” Diplomatic History 23, no. 3 (1999): 467.

70. Penelope Harvey, Hybrids of Modernity: Anthropology, the Nation-State, and the Universal Exhibition (London: Routledge, 1996), 53–59.

71. Askew, Performing the Nation, 11.

72. Kelly and Kaplan, Represented Communities, 18–26, 139–42. See also Connie McNeely, Constructing the Nation-State: International Organization and Prescriptive Action (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995), 21–26, 35–36.

73. Sulwyn Lewis, “Principles of Cultural Co-operation,” Reports and Papers on Mass Page 263 →Communication, no. 61 (Paris: UNESCO, 1970), 11–12; James W. Fernandez, “Andalusia on Our Minds: Two Contrasting Places in Spain as Seen in a Vernacular Poetic Duel of the Late 19th Century,” Cultural Anthropology 3, no. 1 (1988): 21–35; Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture, 65; Lisa McCormick, Performing Civility: International Competitions in Classical Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 53–82; Askew, Performing the Nation, 190.

74. This paragraph and the next are based on Shay, Choreographic Politics, 82–107.

75. The framing of these performances resembles the Soviet treatment of national minorities. See Greg Castillo, “Peoples at an Exhibition: Soviet Architecture and the National Question,” in Socialist Realism without Shores, ed. Thomas Lahusen and Evgeny Dobrenko (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), 91–119; and Askew, Performing the Nation, 217–18.

76. Kwame Anthony Appiah, The Ethics of Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 256; Philip Kotler and David Gertner, “Country as Brand, Product, and Beyond: A Place Marketing and Brand Management Perspective,” Brand Management 4, no. 5 (2002): 249–61; Margaret Mead, “The Importance of National Cultures,” in International Communication and the New Diplomacy, ed. Arthur S. Hoffman (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968), 89–105.

1. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994), 20, 59, 47, 5.

2. McLuhan, 73, 92–93.

3. Thomas de Zengotita, Mediated: How the Media Shapes Your World and the Way You Live in It (New York: Bloomsbury, 2005), 1–11.

4. This paragraph and the next are based on de Zengotita, 7–9, 13–25, 227–29.

5. This paragraph and the next are based on de Zengotita, 10–11, 46–48, 75–80, 115–32.

6. De Zengotita, 13–32, 259–64.

7. De Zengotita, 28–32.

8. De Zengotita, ix, 13–14.

9. I use generation here to give a general sense of the progression of time, but as Yayoi Uno Everett has suggested, a range of models of appropriation and synthesis have been in place since the 1950s. See Yayoi Uno Everett, “Intercultural Synthesis in Western Art Music: Historical Contexts, Perspectives, and Taxonomy,” in Locating East Asia in Western Art Music, ed. Yayoi Uno Everett and Frederick Lau (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2004), 16–21.

10. United Nations resolution, “Policies of Apartheid of the Government of South Africa,” 17 Dec. 1981, www.un.org/documents/ga/res/36/a36r172.htm

11. On the Reagan administration’s reasoning for this abstention, presented under the guise of “constructive engagement,” see Justin Elliott, “Reagan’s Embrace of Apartheid South Africa,” Salon, 5 Feb. 2011, www.salon.com/2011/02/05/ronald_reagan_apartheid_south_africa; and for a contemporaneous critique of the policy see Sanford J. Ungar and Peter Vale, “South Africa: Why Constructive Engagement Failed,” Foreign Affairs 64, no. 2 (Winter 1985): 234–58.

Page 264 →12. Bakithi Kumalo, interview by Christina Roden, RootsWorld, www.rootsworld.com/rw/feature/kumalo.html

13. Louise Meintjes, “Paul Simon’s Graceland, South Africa, and the Mediation of Musical Meaning,” Ethnomusicology 34, no. 1 (1990): 43–48.

14. Classic Albums: Paul Simon Graceland (DVD, Eagle Rock Entertainment/Isis Productions, 1997), 31:44–32:29. Available online at www.youtube.com/watch?v=ncagXenfUKQ

15. Classic Albums: Paul Simon Graceland, 4:01–10:10.

16. Veit Erlmann, “Notes on World Beat,” Public Culture Bulletin 1, no. 1 (Fall 1988): 31–37; Veit Erlmann, “‘Africa Civilised, Africa Uncivilised’: Local Culture, World System, and South African Music,” Journal of Southern African Studies 20, no. 2 (June 1994): 175–79.

17. Classic Albums: Paul Simon Graceland, 1:30; Meintjes, “Paul Simon’s Graceland,” 41–49.

18. McLuhan, Understanding Media, 69.

19. Anahid Kassabian, “Would You Like Some World Music with your Latte? Starbucks, Putumayo, and Distributed Tourism,” Twentieth-Century Music 1, no. 2 (Sept. 2004): 209–23; Philip V. Bohlman, World Music: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 41–46, 69–87, 143–50.

20. Terry Riley, personal website, www.terryriley.com, accessed 2006 (page no longer available).

21. Mark Alburger, “Terry Riley in the ’70s,” 21st-Century Music 11, no. 3 (March 2004): 4–7.

22. See George E. Ruckert, Music in North India: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 56–61.

23. Leta E. Miller and Fredric Lieberman, Lou Harrison: Composing a World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 141–55, 160–61; Henry Spiller, personal communication, 6 March 2019.

24. Maria Cizmic, “Composing the Pacific: Interviews with Lou Harrison,” Echo 1, no. 1 (1999): www.echo.ucla.edu/Volume1-Issue1/cizmic/cizmic-interview.html

25. Miller and Lieberman, Lou Harrison: Composing a World, 57, 59, 160–61.

26. Dale A. Craig, “Transcendental World Music,” Asian Music 2, no. 1 (1971): 2; Miller and Lieberman, Lou Harrison: Composing a World, 215–17; Leta E. Miller and Fredric Lieberman, Lou Harrison (American Composers) (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2006), 97–103.

27. See Christopher Keyes, “Recent Technology and the Hybridization of Western and Chinese Musics,” Organized Sound 10, no. 1 (April 2005): 51; Judy Tsou, “Composing Racial Difference in Madama Butterfly: Tonal Language and the Power of Cio-Cio-San,” in Rethinking Difference in Music Scholarship, ed. Olivia Bloechl, Melanie Lowe, and Jeffrey Kallberg (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 214–37.

28. Lou Harrison, liner notes to The Music of Lou Harrison (Phoenix CD 118, 1991).

29. Henry Spiller, Javaphilia: American Love Affairs with Javanese Music and Dance (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2015), 152–82.

30. Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), esp. 1–17.

Page 265 →31. Olly Wilson, quoted by Billy Taylor in liner notes to Videmus (New World Records/Recorded Anthology of American Music 80423-2, 1992).

32. W. E. B. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk (1903; New York: Fawcett, 1961), 16–17, quoted in Olly Wilson, “Composition from the Perspective of the African-American Tradition,” Black Music Research Journal 16, no. 1 (Spring 1996): 43.

33. Wilson, “Composition,” 50.

34. Olly Wilson, “The Heterogeneous Sound Ideal in African-American Music,” in New Perspectives on Music: Essays in Honor of Eileen Southern, ed. Josephine Wright and Samuel A. Floyd Jr. (Warren, MI: Harmonie Park Press, 1992), 328–29.

35. Miller and Lieberman, Lou Harrison (American Composers), 108.

36. Kwame Anthony Appiah, The Ethics of Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), xv–xvi; de Zengotita, Mediated, 218–27.

37. Appiah, The Ethics of Identity, 62–71.

38. Frank J. Oteri, “Barbara Benary: Mother of Lion,” New Music Box, 1 Feb. 2011, www.newmusicbox.org/articles/barbara-benary-mother-of-lion; Kyle Gann, liner notes to Barbara Benary: Sun on Snow, DRAM, www.dramonline.org/albums/barbara-benary-sun-on-snow/notes

39. Marcus Boon, liner notes to The Complete Gamelan in the New World (Folkways 31313, CD reissue by Locust Media, 2003).

40. Barbara Benary, “Gamelan Works Vol. 1: The Braid Pieces” ([New York]: Gamelan Son of Lion, 1993), American Gamelan Institute, www.gamelan.org/composers/benary/benary_vol1braid.pdf

41. Daniel Goode, “Braiding Hot Rolled Steel,” Musicworks 56 (Fall 1993): 16–18.

42. Sumanth Gopinath, “Contraband Children: The Politics of Race and Liberation in the Music of Steve Reich” (PhD diss., Yale University, 2005), esp. 267–70, 283–306.

43. Asha Srinivasan, personal communication, 23 Feb. 2018; Asha Srinivasan, faculty webpage, www.lawrence.edu/conservatory/faculty/asha_srinivasan

44. The unison section is repeated three times: it is based on a korvai pattern. See David Paul Nelson, “Karnatak Tala,” in The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, vol. 5, South Asia: The Indian Subcontinent, ed. Alison Arnold (New York: Garland, 2000), 155–57. The composer explained that this section resembles the rhythmic and melodic climax that happens at the end of a svara kalpana (improvised) section. Asha Srinivasan, personal communication, 23 Feb. 2018.

45. Example 6.21 comes from a videotape in a personal collection. See https://crownpropeller.wordpress.com/2016/04/26/anthony-braxton-quartet-in-montreux-1975

46. Asha Srinivasan, Note to Janani, www.twocomposers.org/asha/works.php

47. Courtney Bryan, Twitter biography, https://twitter.com/cbryanmusic, as of 22 Feb. 2019.

1. Mark Katz, Capturing Sound: How Technology Has Changed Music (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 12–13.

2. IFPI, Global Music Report 2017, 6, www.ifpi.org/downloads/GMR2017.pdf

3. Statista, Mobile Phone User Penetration Worldwide, www.statista.com/statistics/470018/mobile-phone-user-penetration-worldwide

Page 266 →4. Christopher J. Arthur, Marx’s “Capital”: A Student Edition (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1992), 3–7.

5. Sinéad Cantillon, “Property for Free? An Analysis of Music and Copyright in the Digital Age,” Hibernian Law Journal 11 (2012): 37–39.

6. Adrian Strain, Speech at FILAIE / IFPI Latin America & Caribbean Annual Regional Meeting, Buenos Aires, 9 June 2014, www.ifpi.org/downloads/AS_speech_at_IFPI_FILAIE_event_Buenos_Aires_090614.pdf (italics in the original). See also Jonathan Sterne, MP3: The Meaning of a Format (Durham: Duke University Press, 2012), 184–226.

7. Jack Bishop, “Building International Empires of Sound: Concentrations of Power and Property in the ‘Global’ Music Market,” Popular Music and Society 28, no. 4 (2005): 445–46; Glenton Davis, “When Copyright Is Not Enough: Deconstructing Why, as the Modern Music Industry Takes, Musicians Continue to Make,” Chicago-Kent Journal of Intellectual Property 16, no. 2 (21 June 2017): 373–407.

8. IFPI, Digital Music Report 2007, 18, www.ifpi.org/content/library/digital-music-report-2007.pdf

9. See Mark Kirkeby, “The Pleasures of Home Taping,” Rolling Stone, 2 Oct. 1980, 62–64. The term piracy had been used for illegal copying and republishing of printed music for at least 80 years prior to this date.

10. Cornell Copyright Information Center, “Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States,” https://copyright.cornell.edu/publicdomain; US Copyright Office, “Orrin G. Hatch—Bob Goodlatte Music Modernization Act,” www.copyright.gov/music-modernization

11. United States Copyright Office, “Copyright and the Music Marketplace” (Feb. 2015), 16–17, https://copyright.gov/docs/musiclicensingstudy/copyright-and-the-music-marketplace.pdf

12. Quoted in Gershon Legman, “Who Owns Folklore?” Western Folklore 21, no. 1 (Jan. 1962): 4.

13. Richard Jones, “Technology and the Cultural Appropriation of Music,” International Review of Law, Computers & Technology 23, no. 1–2 (March–July 2009): 118; see also World Intellectual Property Organization, “Model Provisions of National Laws on the Protection of Expressions of Folklore” (1985), www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/unesco/unesco001en.pdf; and Kofi Agawu, Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions (New York: Routledge, 2003), 218–20.

14. US Copyright Office, “More Information on Fair Use,” www.copyright.gov/fair-use/more-info.html

15. US Copyright Office, “Copyright and the Music Marketplace,” 13; US Copyright Office, “Orrin G. Hatch—Bob Goodlatte Music Modernization Act”; Corynne McSherry, “The Sony Digital Rights Management Debacle,” Educause webinar, 28 Feb. 2005, https://library.educause.edu/resources/2006/1/the-sony-digital-rights-management-debacle-the-litigation-the-settlement-and-some-thoughts-on-the-future-of-drm. On selection taping see Rob Drew, “New Technologies and the Business of Music: Lessons from the 1980s Home Taping Hearings,” Popular Music and Society 37, no. 3 (2014): 263–66.

16. United States Copyright Office, “Pre-1972 Sound Recordings: Executive Summary,” www.copyright.gov/docs/sound/pre-72-exec-summary.pdf

Page 267 →17. Connie C. Davis, “Copyright and Antitrust: The Effects of the Digital Performance Rights in Sound Recordings Act of 1995 in Foreign Markets,” Federal Communications Law Journal 52, no. 2, article 6 (2000): 415–16.

18. There used to be six companies: see Bishop, “Building International Empires,” 447–52. Wikipedia tracks the frequent mergers and reorganizations of these media companies in the article “Music Industry,” https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_industry

19. “WMG Makes Recorded-Music Market Share Gains, While Indies Extend Publishing Lead,” Music and Copyright Blog, Informa Telecoms and Media, https://musicandcopyright.wordpress.com/2017/05/12/wmg-makes-recorded-music-market-share-gains-while-indies-extend-publishing-lead. This figure has been estimated as high as 36 percent: see US Copyright Office, “Copyright and the Music Marketplace,” 23.

20. IFPI, Global Music Report 2017, 11.

21. Center for Responsive Politics, “Recording Industry Assn. of America,” www.opensecrets.org/lobby/clientsum.php?id=D000000581

22. Drew, “New Technologies,” 257–62.

23. Serona Elton, “A Survey of Graduated Response Programs to Combat Online Piracy,” MEIEA Journal 14, no. 1 (2014): 95–97.

24. Timothy K. Anderson, “Digital Rights Management and the Process of Fair Use” (2006), University of Cincinnati, Faculty Articles and Other Publications, https://scholarship.law.uc.edu/fac_pubs/146

25. Pamela Samuelson, “Digital Rights Management {and, or, vs.} the Law,” Communications of the ACM 46, no. 4 (2003): 42.

26. Mitch Stoltz, “New Exemptions to DMCA Section 1201 Are Welcome, but Don’t Go Far Enough,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, 26 Oct. 2018, www.eff.org/deeplinks/2018/10/new-exemptions-dmca-section-1201-are-welcome-dont-go-far-enough

27. Elton, “Survey of Graduated Response Programs,” 94–95.

28. Lisa Scott, “Lawyer Fights RIAA for Student Rights,” The Lantern (Ohio State University), 28 Nov. 2007.

29. Elton, “Survey of Graduated Response Programs,” 92–95.

30. Sarah McBride and Ethan Smith, “Music Industry to Abandon Mass Suits,” Wall Street Journal, 19 Dec. 2008, www.wsj.com/articles/SB122966038836021137

31. Elton, “Survey of Graduated Response Programs,” 94.

32. Paul Resnikoff, “Apple ‘On Schedule’ to Terminate Music Downloads by 2019,” Digital Music News, 6 Dec. 2017, www.digitalmusicnews.com/2017/12/06/apple-terminate-music-downloads

33. Eric Drott, “Music as a Technology of Surveillance,” Journal of the Society for American Music 12, no. 3 (August 2018): 235–37; Mark Andrejevic, “Surveillance in the Digital Enclosure,” Communication Review 10 (2007): 296, 298–99; Patrick Burkart, “Music in the Cloud and the Digital Sublime,” Popular Music and Society 37, no. 4 (2014): 404–5.

34. Helge Rønning, “Systems of Control and Regulation: Copyright Issues, Digital Divides and Citizens’ Rights,” Critical Arts: A South-North Journal of Cultural and Media Studies 20, no. 1 (2006): 20.

35. “After Net Neutrality: Brace for Internet ‘Fast Lanes,’” New York Times, 20 Dec. 2017.

Page 268 →36. Don Tyler, Hit Songs, 1900–1955: American Popular Music of the Pre-Rock Era (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2007), 2; David Brackett, Categorizing Sound: Genre and Twentieth-Century Popular Music (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2016), 142–43; “Billboard Media Kit 2019,” www.billboard.com/files/media/bb_Media_Kit_2019.pdf; Robert G. Woletz, “Pop Music: Technology Gives the Charts a Fresh Spin,” New York Times, 26 Jan. 1992.

37. Chuck Philips, “The Accidental Chart Revolution,” Los Angeles Times, 30 May 1991, http://articles.latimes.com/print/1991-05-30/entertainment/ca-3677_1_market-research-system; Sound Exchange, “Reporting Requirements,” www.soundexchange.com/service-provider/reporting-requirements

38. Woletz, “Pop Music.”

39. Billboard, “About Our Ads,” www.billboard.com/p/about-our-ads

40. Drott, “Music as a Technology of Surveillance,” 233.

41. Drott, 237–39, 243–45; Colin J. Bennett and Christopher Parsons, “Privacy and Surveillance: The Multidisciplinary Literature on the Capture, Use, and Disclosure of Personal Information in Cyberspace,” in The Oxford Handbook of Internet Studies, ed. William H. Dutton (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 492–93.

42. Dave Horwitz, Twitter post, 27 Oct. 2015, 12:09 p.m., http://twitter.com/Dave_Horwitz. I owe this source, along with many of the insights in this section, to Eric Drott. On this mode of address see Drott, “Why the Next Song Matters: Streaming, Recommendation, Scarcity,” Twentieth-Century Music 15, no. 3 (2018): 325–57.

43. Christopher May, The World Intellectual Property Organization: Resurgence and the Development Agenda (New York: Routledge, 2007), 19.

44. May, The World Intellectual Property Organization, 20–21.

45. J. H. Reichman, “Universal Minimum Standards of Intellectual Property Protection under the TRIPS Component of the WTO Agreement,” International Lawyer 29, no. 2 (Summer 1995): 351.

46. John Fredrick Bishop, “Who Are the Pirates? Power Relationships in a Globalized Music Market, Ethnomusicological Perspectives” (PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2005), 183, 235–37. See also K. E. Goldschmitt, Bossa Mundo: Brazilian Music in Transnational Media Industries (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 144–50.

47. Ryan Thomas Skinner, “Artists, Music Piracy, and the Crisis of Political Subjectivity in Contemporary Mali,” Anthropological Quarterly 85, no. 3 (2012): 732–39; Bishop, “Who Are the Pirates?” 198–99.

48. Andreas Johnsen, Ralf Christensen, and Henrik Moltke, Good Copy, Bad Copy (Copenhagen: Rosforth Films, 2007); Helene Garcia-Solek, “Sampling as Political Practice: Gilberto Gil’s Cultural Policy in Brazil and the Right to Culture in the Digital Age,” Volume! 11, no. 1 (2015): 54–55; Samuel Howard-Spink, “The Political Economy of Music Networks and Glocal Hybrid Social Imaginaries: A Comparative Study of the United States, Canada, and Brazil” (PhD diss., New York University, 2012), 256–59; Goldschmitt, Bossa Mundo, 2–4.

49. Gavin Steingo, Kwaito’s Promise: Music and the Aesthetics of Freedom in South Africa (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), esp. chap. 2. See also Tom Astley, “The People’s Mixtape: Peer-to-Peer File Sharing without the Internet in Contemporary Cuba,” in Page 269 →Networked Music Cultures: Contemporary Approaches, Emerging Issues, ed. Raphaël Nowak and Andrew Whelan (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 13–30; and Noriko Manabe, “Streaming Music in Japan: Corporate Cultures as Determinants of Listening Practice,” in Nowak and Whelan, 67–76.

50. Laurence R. Helfer, “Regime Shifting: The TRIPs Agreement and New Dynamics of Intellectual Property Lawmaking,” Yale Journal of International Law 29, no. 1 (2004), 24.

51. Bishop, “Who Are the Pirates?” 180–81.

52. Bishop, 219–24.

53. Bishop, 224; Howard-Spink, “Political Economy of Music Networks,” 250–55.

54. The government appears to have licensed individual artists with approved messages. Hailey Bondy, “YAS: Persian Rap Royalty,” MTV Iggy, 14 Dec. 2011, https://archive.fo/20130427050730/ht...an-rap-royalty

55. Janine Di Giovanni, “Iranian Rap Music Flourishes Underground Despite Strict Religious Laws in Tehran,” Newsweek, 16 August 2016, www.newsweek.com/2016/08/26/iran-rap-i-farsi-021-music-tehran-490762.html

56. Saulo Faria Almeida Barretto et al., “Digital Culture and Sharing: Theory and Practice of a Brazilian Cultural Public Policy,” in Information Resources Management: Global Challenges, ed. Wai K. Law (Hershey, PA: Idea Group, 2007), 153.

57. Garcia-Solek, “Sampling as Political Practice,” 56–57.

58. Francesco Nachira, Andrea Nicolai, Paolo Dini, Marion Le Louarn, and Lorena Rivera Leon, Digital Business Ecosystems (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2007), sec. 4, 187–88, www.digital-ecosystems.org/book

59. Andrade referred to this concept as “cultural cannibalism,” or antropofagia. Howard-Spink, “Political Economy of Music Networks,” 229.

60. Gilberto Gil, “Uma nova política cultural para o Brasil,” Revista Rio de Janeiro, no. 15 (May 2005): 103–10, quoted in Garcia-Solek, “Sampling as Political Practice,” 57.

61. Digital Culture Initiative website, http://estudiolivre.org (site no longer available).

62. Howard-Spink, “Political Economy of Music Networks,” 248.

63. Nachira et al., Digital Business Ecosystems, sec. 4, 188.

64. Barbara Szaniecki and Gerardo Silva, “Rio et la politique de ‘Pontos de Cultura’” (Rio and the Politics of ‘Culture Hotspots’), Multitudes, no. 43 (2010): 75.

65. Szaniecki and Silva, 76–77.

66. Ronaldo Lemos, “A Legacy at Risk: How the New Ministry of Culture in Brazil Reversed Its Digital Agenda,” Freedom to Tinker, Princeton University Center for Information Technology Policy, 14 March 2011, https://freedom-to-tinker.com/2011/03/14/legacy-risk-how-new-ministry-culture-brazil-reversed-its-digital-agenda; see also Barretto et al., “Digital Culture and Sharing,” 158–59.

67. Barretto et al., “Digital Culture and Sharing,” 153–56; Garcia-Solek, “Sampling as Political Practice,” 57–58.

68. Howard-Spink, “Political Economy of Music Networks,” 223, 332–33n209.

69. Creative Commons, “Licensing Types,” https://creativecommons.org/share-your-work/licensing-types-examples; see also Michael W. Carroll, “Creative Commons as Conversational Copyright” (2007), Villanova University Charles Widger School of Law Digital Repository, http://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/wps/art71

Page 270 →70. Garcia-Solek, “Sampling as Political Practice,” 57.

71. Lemos, “A Legacy at Risk”; Sergio Amadeu da Silveira, Murilo Bansi Machado, and Rodrigo Tarchiani Savazoni, “Backward March: The Turnaround in Public Cultural Policy in Brazil,” Media, Culture & Society 35, no. 5 (2013): 560–61.

72. “Tepito Market Raided Again” and “Customs Seizure in Mexico,” IFPI Right Track, Feb. 2009, 8, www.ifpi.org/content/library/Right-Track-2.pdf

73. IFPI press release, “IFPI Welcomes Closure of Demonoid,” 13 August 2012, http://top40-charts.com/news/Music-Industry/IFPI-Welcomes-Closure-Of-Demonoid/81085.html

74. Saskia Sassen, Territory—Authority—Rights: From Medieval to Global Assemblages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 203, 412.

75. Sassen, 194.

76. Sassen, 195–97; Lisa Duggan, The Twilight of Equality: Neoliberalism, Cultural Politics, and the Attack on Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 2003), x–xiii; Wendy Brown, Undoing the Demos: Neoliberalism’s Stealth Revolution (New York: Zone Books, 2015), 28–35.

77. Susan Strange, “The Declining Authority of States,” in The Global Transformations Reader, ed. David Held and Anthony McGrew (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000): 148–55.

78. Bruce Jones, Thomas Wright, et al., “The State of the International Order,” Brookings Institution Policy Paper no. 33 (Feb. 2014), 5–6, www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/intlorder_report.pdf; Cameron McLoughlin and Noriaki Kinoshita, “Monetization in Low- and Middle-Income Countries,” International Monetary Fund Working Paper 12/160 (June 2012), 3–4, 10, www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2016/12/31/Monetization-in-Low-and-Middle-Income-Countries-26010; Anand G. Chandavarkar, “Monetization of Developing Economies,” Staff Papers (International Monetary Fund) 24, no. 3 (Nov. 1977): 665–70. For a feminist critique of monetization strategies see Anne Marie Goetz, “From Feminist Knowledge to Data for Development: The Bureaucratic Management of Information on Women and Development,” IDS Bulletin 25, no. 2 (1994): 32.

79. Micheal Abimboye, “Nigeria Not Among World’s Top 20 Music Markets—D’Banj Disagrees,” Premium Times (Nigeria), 1 Nov. 2013, www.premiumtimesng.com/news/147676-nigeria-among-worlds-top-20-music-markets-dbanj-disagrees.html

80. Thai News Service (Bangkok), “Thailand: Fighting Intellectual Property Piracy Gets Harder,” 25 May 2009, ProQuest Global Newsstream.

81. Frank J. Penna, Monique Thormann, and Michael Finger, “The Africa Music Project,” in Poor People’s Knowledge: Promoting Intellectual Property in Developing Countries, ed. J. Michael Finger and Philip Schuler (Washington, DC: World Bank and Oxford University Press, 2004), 95, 99.

82. Bishop, “Who Are the Pirates?” 226.

83. Skinner, “Artists, Music Piracy,” 741–49; see also Heather MacLachlan, Burma’s Pop Music Industry: Creators, Distributors, Censors (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2011), 131–34.

84. Paul Resnikoff, “The Top 1% of Artists Earn 77% of Recorded Music Income, Study Finds,” Digital Music News, 5 March 2014, www.digitalmusicnews.com/2014/03/05/toponepercent; Natalia Linares and Francisco Perez, “‘Despacito’ Will Not Save Us,” Africa Is a Page 271 →Country, 27 August 2017, http://africasacountry.com/2017/08/despacito-will-not-save-us; Boima Tucker, “Sunday Read: Cultural Appropriation and Sugar Drinks,” Africa Is a Country, 30 July 2017, http://africasacountry.com/2017/07/sunday-read-cultural-appropriation-revisited

85. K. E. Goldschmitt, “Mobile Tactics in the Brazilian Independent Music Industry,” in The Oxford Handbook of Mobile Music Studies, vol. 1, ed. Sumanth Gopinath and Jason Stanyek (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 497–98, 503, 509–14.

86. Goldschmitt, 511–13; Leonardo de Marchi, “Structural Transformations of the Music Industry in Brazil, 1999–2009,” in Made in Brazil: Studies in Popular Music, ed. Martha Tupinambá de Ulhôa, Cláudia Azevedo, and Felipe Trotta (New York: Routledge, 2015), 181–85.

87. K. E. Goldschmitt, “From Rio to São Paulo: Shifting Urban Landscapes and Global Strategies for Brazilian Music,” in Sounds and the City, vol. 2, ed. Brett Lashua, Stephen Wagg, Karl Spracklen, and M. Selim Yavuz (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 103–22.

88. Strain, Speech at FILAIE, 2.

89. Bishop, “Who Are the Pirates?” 184–87.

90. Strain, Speech at FILAIE, 2; John Baldivia, “A Stream of Hope: Why Music Streaming Licenses Will Turn Around China’s Music Industry in Spite of Rampant Piracy of Music,” Southwestern Journal of International Law 22, no. 1 (2016): 180–87. See also Howard-Spink, “Political Economy of Music Networks,” 232–37.

91. Anna Tsing, Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 9, 85, 4, 5.

92. Brown, Undoing the Demos, 9–11, 29–45; Bonnie Honig, Public Things: Democracy in Disrepair (New York: Fordham University Press, 2017), 4–7.

93. “WIPO Development Agenda: Background (2004–2007),” www.wipo.int/ip-development/en/agenda/background.html

1. Donna Haraway, “A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late 20th Century,” in The International Handbook of Virtual Learning Environments, ed. Joel Weiss, Jason Nolan, Jeremy Hunsinger, and Peter Trifonas (Dordrecht: Springer, 2006): 121–22, 128–32, 136–40; Nestór García Canclini, Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Modernity, trans. Christopher L. Chiappari and Silvia L. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 8; Jonathan Sterne, The Audible Past: Cultural Origins of Sound Reproduction (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 6–8.

2. “What Is Intangible Cultural Heritage?” UNESCO, https://ich.unesco.org/en/what-is-intangible-heritage-00003

3. Thomas Beardslee, “Questioning Safeguarding: Heritage and Capabilities at the Jemaa el Fnaa” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 2014), 3–8, 171–225; Canclini, Hybrid Cultures, 6–11.

4. John D. Kelly and Martha Kaplan, Represented Communities: Fiji and World Decolonization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 96–99.

5. Kwame Anthony Appiah, “Whose Culture Is It, Anyway?” in Cultural Heritage Issues: The Legacy of Conquest, Colonization, and Commerce, ed. James A. R. Nafziger and Page 272 →Ann M. Nigorski (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2010), 217. See also Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, preamble (14 May 1954), http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13637&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

6. Canclini, Hybrid Cultures, xxv–xxvii.

7. Canclini, 6–13, 58–59; Renato Rosaldo, preface to Canclini, Hybrid Cultures, xii–xvi.

8. Elizabeth M. Hoeffel, Sonya Rastogi, Myoung Ouk Kim, and Hasan Shahid, “The Asian Population: 2010,” US Census Bureau, Report no. C2010BR-11 (March 2012): 14.

9. In-Jin Yoon, “Migration and the Korean Diaspora: A Comparative Description of Five Cases,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 38, no. 3 (March 2012): 424–25.

10. Hyun Kyong (Hannah) Chang, “Musical Encounters in Korean Christianity: A Trans-Pacific Narrative” (PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2014), 1–101.

11. Yoon, “Migration and the Korean Diaspora,” 424–27; Mae M. Ngai, “‘The Unlovely Residue of Outworn Prejudices’: The Hart-Celler Act and the Politics of Immigration Reform, 1945–1965,” in Americanism: New Perspectives on the History of an Ideal, ed. Michael Kazin and Joseph A. McCartin (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 108–27; Muzaffar Chishti, Faye Hipsman, and Isabel Ball, “Fifty Years On, the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act Continues to Reshape the United States,” Migration Policy Institute, 15 Oct. 2015, www.migrationpolicy.org/article/fifty-years-1965-immigration-and-nationality-act-continues-reshape-united-states

12. Jiwon Ahn, “Signifying Nations: Cultural Institutions and the Korean Community in Los Angeles,” in The Sons and Daughters of Los: Culture and Community in L.A., ed. David E. James (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003), 163–64.

13. Soo-Jin Kim, “Diasporic P’ungmul in the United States: A Journey between Korea and the United States” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 2011), 11–15.

14. See Susan Kiromi Serrano and Dale Minami, “Korematsu v. United States: A Constant Caution in a Time of Crisis,” Asian American Law Journal 10, no. 1 (2003): 37–50.

15. See, e.g., Benjamin Walton, “Italian Operatic Fantasies in Latin America,” Journal of Modern Italian Studies 17, no. 4 (2012): 460–71.

16. Danielle Fosler-Lussier, Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy (Oakland: University of California Press, 2015), 47–76.

17. Hye-jung Park, “From World War to Cold War: Music in US-Korea Relations, 1941–1960” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 2019), 78–94; Chang, “Musical Encounters in Korean Christianity,” 1; Kim, “Diasporic P’ungmul,” 27–28.

18. Grace Wang, Soundscapes of Asian America: Navigating Race through Musical Performance (Durham: Duke University Press, 2015), 4–5, 23–63.

19. Martin Cullingford, “Seoul Philharmonic Signs to DG,” Gramophone, 13 April 2011, www.gramophone.co.uk/classical-music-news/seoul-philharmonic-signs-to-dg

20. Fosler-Lussier, Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy, 54.

21. Wang, Soundscapes of Asian America, 12–16; Mari Yoshihara, Musicians from a Different Shore (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007), 5–6, 188–224.

22. Wang, Soundscapes of Asian America, 75–87, 98–100.

23. Canclini, Hybrid Cultures, xxxvii.

Page 273 →24. “Sarah Chang: CNN Interview, Part 2,” www.youtube.com/watch?v=8o7laAIQeJw

25. Quoted in Michael Ahn Paarlberg, “Can Asians Save Classical Music?” Slate, 2 Feb. 2012, www.slate.com/articles/arts/culturebox/2012/02/can_asians_save_classical_music_.html

26. Leon Botstein, “Music of a Century,” in The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Music, vol. 1, ed. Nicholas Cook and Anthony Pople, 48–49, 65–66; Norman Lebrecht, The Life and Death of Classical Music (New York: Anchor Books, 2007), 130–40; Lawrence Kramer, Why Classical Music Still Matters (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), vii.

27. See Canclini, Hybrid Cultures, 179; and Richard Taruskin, “The Musical Mystique,” New Republic, 22 Oct. 2007, https://newrepublic.com/article/64350/books-the-musical-mystique

28. Linda Shaver-Gleason, “Who Wrote the Symphonies, and Why Should It Matter?” Not another Music History Cliché! (blog), 27 Sept. 2018, https://notanothermusichistorycliche.blogspot.com/2018/09/who-wrote-symphonies-and-why-should-it.html; Canclini, Hybrid Cultures, xxx, 135–37.

29. Canclini, Hybrid Cultures, xxviii–xxix.

30. Rosaldo, preface to Canclini, Hybrid Cultures, xv.

31. Canclini, Hybrid Cultures, 258.

32. Quoted in Boudewijn Buckinx, liner notes to All the Noises (New World Records 80674-2, 2008).

33. Wang, Soundscapes of Asian America, 90–96.

34. Canclini, Hybrid Cultures, xxxi.

35. Nathan Hesselink, P’ungmul: South Korean Drumming and Dance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 9–10, 15–16; Park, “From World War to Cold War,” 94–99; Kim, “Diasporic P’ungmul,” 69–70.

36. Byong Won Lee, “History,” in Music of Korea, ed. Byong Won Lee and Yong-Shik Lee (Seoul: National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts, 2007), 11.

37. Katherine In-Young Lee, “The Drumming of Dissent during South Korea’s Democratization Movement,” Ethnomusicology 56, no. 2 (Spring/Summer 2012): 179–205; Hesselink, P’ungmul, 2, 11; Donna Lee Kwon, Music in Korea: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 79–82.

38. Kwon, Music in Korea, 71–79; Hesselink, P’ungmul, 94–95.

39. Jan Turtinen, “Globalising Heritage—On UNESCO and the Transnational Construction of a World Heritage,” SCORE Rapportserie 2000, no. 12 (Stockholm: Stockholm Center for Organizational Research, 2000), 9–17.

40. Chang, “Musical Encounters in Korean Christianity,” 107–15; Hesselink, P’ungmul, 12; Kim, “Diasporic P’ungmul,” 103–8; Shingil Park, “Negotiated Identities in a Performance Genre: The Case of P’ungmul and Samulnori in Contemporary Seoul” (PhD diss., University of Pittsburgh, 2000), 65–68.

41. Sori Ulrim (Rumbling Sound), performance at the Daejeon Culture & Arts Center in 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=i8KFlJbRbus. My thanks to Hyun Kyong (Hannah) Chang for the translation and interpretation of the text in the video.

42. Hesselink, P’ungmul, 50–64; Park, “Negotiated Identities,” 31–41.

Page 274 →43. Park, “Negotiated Identities,” 70–141; “The National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts (NCKTPA),” Asia-Europe Foundation, 3 July 2011, https://culture360.asef.org/resources/national-center-korean-traditional-performing-arts-ncktpa

44. Kim, “Diasporic P’ungmul,” 132–35, 148.

45. Ahn, “Signifying Nations,” 159; Kim, “Diasporic P’ungmul,” 58.

46. Kim, “Diasporic P’ungmul,” 241–60; see also Park, “Negotiated Identities,” 127–42.

47. Kim, “Diasporic P’ungmul,” 63–64.

48. Nathan Hesselink, “Folk Music: Instrumental,” in Music of Korea, ed. Byong Won Lee and Yong-Shik Lee (Seoul: National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts, 2007), 98.

49. Kim, “Diasporic P’ungmul,” 165–67, 174–78.

50. Kim, 51–54, 160.

51. Katherine In-Young Lee, Dynamic Korea and Rhythmic Form (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2018), 61–131.

52. Lakeyta M. Bonnette, Pulse of the People: Political Rap Music and Black Politics (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 109.

53. Tricia Rose, Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1994), 2–3, 21–61.

54. Rose, 12.

55. Lisa Disch, “Representation,” Oxford Handbook of Feminist Theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 782, 792–98; Charles Taylor, “The Politics of Recognition,” in Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 25–73.

56. Bonnette, Pulse of the People, 109–12; Abdoulaye Niang, “Bboys: Hip-Hop Culture in Dakar, Sénégal,” in Global Youth? Hybrid Identities, Plural Worlds, ed. Pam Nilan and Carles Feixa (New York: Routledge, 2006), 176.

57. Foundational accounts of this dynamic include Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Paul Gordon Lauren, “Seen from the Outside: The International Perspective on America’s Dilemma,” in Window on Freedom: Race, Civil Rights, and Foreign Affairs, 1945–1988, ed. Brenda Gayle Plummer (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 21–43; Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); and Laura Belmonte, Selling the American Way: U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 159–77.

58. Melinda Schwenk-Borrell, “Selling Democracy: The US Information Agency’s Portrayal of American Race Relations, 1953–1976” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2004), 72–73, 136; Belmonte, Selling the American Way, 165–66.

59. Anne Garland Mahler, “The Global South in the Belly of the Beast: Viewing African American Civil Rights through a Tricontinental Lens,” Latin American Research Review 50, no. 1 (2015): 95–116.

60. Sujatha Fernandes, Close to the Edge: In Search of the Global Hip Hop Generation (London: Verso, 2011), 2–3; see also Bonnette, Pulse of the People, 2–3.

61. See, for instance, Raquel Z. Rivera, “Rap in Puerto Rico: Reflections from the Margins,”Page 275 → in Globalization and Survival in the Black Diaspora, ed. Charles Green (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997), 109–27; Chiara Minestrelli, Australian Indigenous Hip Hop (New York: Routledge, 2017); The Cambridge Companion to Hip-Hop, ed. Justin A. Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015); and Global Noise: Rap and Hip-Hop Outside the USA, ed. Tony Mitchell (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2001).

62. See George E. Lewis, “Foreword: After Afrofuturism,” Journal of the Society for American Music 2, no. 2 (2008): 139–53; Susana M. Morris, “Black Girls Are from the Future: Afrofuturist Feminism in Octavia E. Butler’s Fledgling,” WSQ: Women’s Studies Quarterly 40, no. 3–4 (Fall/Winter 2012): 152–56.

63. Yugen Blakrok, “DarkStar,” from Return of the Astro-Goth (Iapetus Records, 2013).

64. Apocalypse, “Interview: Yugen Blakrok,” Lalelani, 9 June 2016, https://lalelani.co.za/interview-yugen-blakrok (no longer accessible).

65. See Qiana Whitted, “‘To Be African Is to Merge Technology and Magic’: An Interview with Nnedi Okorafor,” in Afrofuturism 2.0: The Rise of Astro-Blackness, ed. Reynaldo Anderson and Charles E. Jones (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2016), 209.

66. Fernandes, Close to the Edge, 187. Mark Katz has emphasized the sense of ownership of the genre felt by hip-hop musicians. I am grateful for his comments, which have improved this section.

67. Okon Hwang, Western Art Music in South Korea: Everyday Experience and Cultural Critique (Saarbrücken: VDM, 2009), 202.

68. James N. Sater, “Morocco’s ‘Arab’ Spring,” Middle East Institute, 1 Oct. 2011, www.mei.edu/content/morocco’s-“arab”-spring; Vish Sakthivel, “Six Years after the Arab Spring, Morocco Is Experiencing Its Own Unrest,” Washington Post, 18 August 2017, www.washingtonpost.com/news/democracy-post/wp/2017/08/18/six-years-after-the-arab-spring-morocco-is-experiencing-its-own-unrest

69. Kendra Salois, “The Networked Self: Hip Hop Musicking and Muslim Identities in Neoliberal Morocco” (PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2013), 74.

70. Soultana, “Sawt Nssa (‘The Voice of Women’),” trans. Sean O’Keefe, Revolutionary Arab Rap: The Index, 19 Feb. 2012, http://revolutionaryarabraptheindex.blogspot.com/2012/02/soultana-sawt-nssa-voice-of-women.html

71. Raja Felgata and Margo de Haas, Soultana Raps for Change in Morocco, YouTube (Dec. 20, 2013), www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTjM8wQ64nM

72. Salois, “The Networked Self,” 153, 161, 165–69.

73. Salois, 80.

74. Salois, 180; see also 147, 167, 176–80.

75. Mayam Mahmoud, “It’s My Right,” trans. Sean O’Keefe, Revolutionary Arab Rap Music: The Index (blog), 6 June 2014, http://revolutionaryarabraptheindex.blogspot.com/2014/06/myam-mahmoud-its-my-right.html

76. Salois, “The Networked Self,” 147, 157; Kendra Salois, “Jihad against Jihad against Jihad,” New Inquiry, 17 Oct. 2012, https://thenewinquiry.com/jihad-against-jihad-against-jihad

77. Salois, “Jihad against Jihad against Jihad.”

78. Salois, 177; see also Stephen Greenblatt, Cultural Mobility: A Manifesto (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 251.

Page 276 →79. Ali Colleen Neff, “Roots, Routes, and Rhizomes: Sounding Women’s Hip Hop on the Margins of Dakar, Senegal,” Journal of Popular Music Studies 27, no. 4 (2015): 469.