1.35: δείκνυμι and φημί

The Verb

In Greek and in English verbs have the same definitions and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for person and number.

The μι-Verbs δείκνυμι and φημί

Though not as numerous as ω-verbs, μι-verbs occur frequently. μι-verbs conjugate differently from ω-verbs in some tenses, typically the present, imperfect, aorist, and sometimes the perfect. In conjugating these verb forms, learn which stem to combine with which ending. The stem is the base of the word to which the ending is joined. Once you have the correct stem and ending, combine them to create the correct form. You may memorize the stems and endings or you may learn how to combine stems and endings so that you can recognize the forms as you encounter them.

Present and Imperfect Tense Stems

Use the long vowel grade stem for the singular (I, you, he, she, it) and the short vowel grade for the plural (we, you, they). Note that the stems differ even within the same tense, mood, and voice.

long vowel grade stem (use for the singular)	short vowel grade stem (use for the plural)
δεικνῡ-	δεικνυ-
φη-	φα-

Present and Imperfect Tense Endings

Add to the correct tense stem.

	Primary Active (use for the present)			Secondary Active (use for the imperfect)
	S	PL		S	PL
1^st	-μι	-μεν	1^st	-ν	-μεν
2^nd	-ς	-τε	2^nd	-ς	-τε
3^rd	-σι (ν)	-ᾱσι (ν)	3^rd	---	-σαν
Infinitive Active
-ναι

	Primary Middle and Passive (use for the present)			Secondary Middle and Passive (use for the imperfect)
	S	PL		S	PL
1^st	-μαι	-μεθα	1^st	-μην	-μεθα
2^nd	-σαι	-σθε	2^nd	-σο	-σθε
3^rd	-ται	-νται	3^rd	-το	-ντο
Infinitive Middle and Passive
-σθαι

The Conjugation of δείκνυμι

The principal parts are these:

δείκνῡμι δείξω ἔδειξα δέδειχα δέδειγμαι ἐδείχθην

Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stem with the correct endings.

Present Indicative Active of δείκνῡμι

Singular: long vowel grade, δεικνῡ-, + primary active endings. Plural: short vowel grade, δεικνυ-, + primary active endings.

Verb Form	English Equivalent	Person and Number
δείκνῡμι	I show	1^st person singular
δείκνῡς	you show	2^nd person singular
δείκνῡσι (ν)	he, she, it shows	3^rd person singular
δείκνυμεν	we show	1^st person plural
δείκνυτε	you show	2^nd person plural
δεικνύᾱσι (ν)	they show	3^rd person plural

Present Infinitive Active of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade of the stem, δεικνυ-, + -ναι.

δεικνύναι to show unmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Present Indicative Middle of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade of the stem, δεικνυ-, + primary middle and passive endings.

Verb Form	English Equivalent	Person and Number
δείκνυμαι	I set	1^st person singular
δείκνυσαι	you set	2^nd person singular
δείκνυται	he, she, it sets	3^rd person singular
δεικνύμεθα	we set	1^st person plural
δείκνυσθε	you set	2^nd person plural
δείκνυνται	they set	3^rd person plural

Present Infinitive Middle of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade of the stem, δεικνυ-, + -σθαι.

δείκνυσθαι to set unmarked for person & #

1. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Present Indicative Passive of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade of the stem, δεικνυ-, + primary middle and passive endings.

Verb Form	English Equivalent	Person and Number
δείκνυμαι	I am shown	1^st person singular
δείκνυσαι	you are shown	2^nd person singular
δείκνυται	he, she, it is shown	3^rd person singular
δεικνύμεθα	we are shown	1^st person plural
δείκνυσθε	you are shown	2^nd person plural
δείκνυνται	they are shown	3^rd person plural

Present Infinitive Passive of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade of the stem, δεικνυ-, + -σθαι.

δείκνυσθαι to be shown unmarked for person & #

1. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Imperfect Indicative Active of δείκνῡμι

Singular: long vowel grade, δεικνῡ-, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings. Plural: short vowel grade, δεικνυ-, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.

Verb Form	English Equivalent	Person and Number
ἐδείκνῡν	I was showing, used to show	1^st person singular
ἐδείκνῡς	you were showing, used to show	2^nd person singular
ἐδείκνῡ	he, she, it was showing, used to show	3^rd person singular
ἐδείκνυμεν	we were showing, used to show	1^st person plural
ἐδείκνυτε	you were showing, used to show	2^nd person plural
ἐδείκνυσαν	they were showing, used to show	3^rd person plural

Imperfect Indicative Middle of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade stem, δεικνυ-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.

Verb Form	English Equivalent	Person and Number
ἐδεικνύμην	I was setting, used to set	1^st person singular
ἐδείκνυσο	you were setting, used to set	2^nd person singular
ἐδείκνυτο	he, she, it was setting, used to set	3^rd person singular
ἐδεικνύμεθα	we were setting, used to set	1^st person plural
ἐδείκνυσθε	you were setting, used to set	2^nd person plural
ἐδείκνυντο	they were setting, used to set	3^rd person plural

Imperfect Indicative Passive of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade stem, δεικνυ-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.

Verb Form	English Equivalent	Person and Number
ἐδεικνύμην	I was being shown, used to be shown	1^st person singular
ἐδείκνυσο	you were being shown, used to be shown	2^nd person singular
ἐδείκνυτο	he, she, it was being shown, used to be shown	3^rd person singular
ἐδεικνύμεθα	we were being shown, used to be shown	1^st person plural
ἐδείκνυσθε	you were being shown, used to be shown	2^nd person plural
ἐδείκνυντο	they were being shown, used to be shown	3^rd person plural

The Conjugation of φημί

The principal parts are these:

φημί φήσω ἔφησα ------ ------ ------

φημί does not have a middle or a passive voice. It has active forms in the present, imperfect, future, and aorist. It uses μι-verb endings for the present and imperfect and ω-verb endings for the future and first aorist.

Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stem with the correct endings.

Present Indicative Active of φημί

Singular: long vowel grade, φη-, + primary active endings. Plural: short vowel grade, φα-, + primary active endings.

Verb Form	English Equivalent	Person and Number
φημί	I say	1^st person singular
φής, φῄς, φῇσθα	you say	2^nd person singular
φησί (ν)	he, she, it says	3^rd person singular
φαμέν	we say	1^st person plural
φατέ	you say	2^nd person plural
φᾱσί (ν)	they say	3^rd person plural

Present Infinitive Active of φημί

Short vowel grade, φα-, + -ναι.

φάναι to say unmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Imperfect Indicative Active of φημί

Singular: long vowel grade, φη-, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings. Plural: short vowel grade, φα-, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.

Verb Form	English Equivalent	Person and Number
ἔφην	I was saying, used to say	1^st person singular
ἔφης, ἔφησθα	you were saying, used to say	2^nd person singular
ἔφη	he, she, it was saying, used to say	3^rd person singular
ἔφαμεν	we were saying, used to say	1^st person plural
ἔφατε	you were saying, used to say	2^nd person plural
ἔφασαν	they were saying, used to say	3^rd person plural

Practice Translating μι-Verbs. Translate the below sentences, adapted from a variety of ancient Greek writers. To come to an accurate understanding of the sentences, use your knowledge of endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or function, remember to use the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I and the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII to assist you. After you finish translating each sentence, check your understanding with the answer in the Answer Key. After you have read through all of the sentences once, read them again at least two more times. In each subsequent reading your understanding improves.

1. ὁ πόλεμος καὶ δυστυχία τὰς ὀργὰς τῶν βροτῶν τὰς αὐτὰς ταῖς συντυχίαις καθιστᾶσιν.
2. ἡ γῆ μέλαινα πίνει· πίνει δένδρεα δ’ αὖ γῆν· ὁ δ’ ἥλιος θάλατταν; τὸν δ’ ἥλιον σελήνη. ἡ φύσις καὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων καὶ τῶν πάντων πίνειν. τί, ὦ ἑταῖροι, οὐ καλὸν καί μοι πίνειν (Anakreontic, anonymous poems written in the Anakreontic meter);
3. ὅσῳ πέλας τὰ Μοίρας, μᾶλλον πρέπει τοῖς ἀνθρώποις τερπνὰ παίζειν· καὶ γὰρ ἡ Μοίρα ὡς τάχιστα τὰς τέρψεις τοῦ βίου δίδωσι καὶ λαμβάνει.
4. Μοίρα δεσπότῃ ἔδωκε τὸ σῶμα Ζωσίμης, ψύχην ἀγαθῆς, καὶ νῦν θανάτῳ, ἣ πρὶν ἦν μόνῳ τῷ σώματι δούλη, καὶ τῷ σώματι εὗρεν ἐλευθερίην (Damaskios).
5. παρ’ αὐτῷ Ζηνὶ πίμπλημι ἀμβροσίης ὅταν τὰ ὄμματα βλέπω ἧς ἐράω.
6. ἐπεὶ ἀστέρας ἀναβλέπεις, Ἀστήρ, οὐρανός εἰμι καὶ πολλοῖς ὄμμασιν εἰς σὲ καταβλέπω.
7. οὔτε γὰρ ἐλπίδ’ ἔχομεν γηράσαι οὔτε θανεῖν ὅτε ἐσμὲν ὑγιείας καλῆς· ἀλλὰ χρόνος βιότου θνητοῖς ὀλίγος.
8. πῶς δ’ ὑγιείαν ἔδοτε αὐτοῖς, ὡς πάντες ὧν ψαύετε θνῄσκουσιν;
9. αἰνίζειν μὲν ἄριστον· ὁ δὲ ψόγος ἔχθους ἀρχή· ἀλλὰ κακῶς εἰπεῖν Ἀττικὴν δίδωσί μοι τέρψιν.
10. πάντα θεοῖς ἀνέθεσαν Ὅμηρός θ’ Ἡσίοδός τε· κλέπτειν, μοιχεύειν τε καὶ ἀλλήλους ἀπατεύειν.

Adverbs and Verbs

αἰνίζω praise, approve	καταβλέπω look, look down
ἀναβλέπω look, look back	κλέπτω steal
ἀνατίθημι set up, establish, dedicate, offer	*λαμβάνω, λήψομαι, ἔλαβον take, receive; capture
ἀπατεύω deceive	*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπον say, tell, speak
αὖ (adverb, postpositive) in turn, again	λύω (ῡ), λύσω, ἔλῡσα loose, free, destroy; (mid.) ransom
*ἄρχω, ἄρξω, ἦρξα rule, command; begin + gen.	μοιχεύω commit adultery; debauch
βλέπω, βλέψω, ἔβλεψα see, have the power of sight	νεύω, νεύσω, ἔνευσα nod
γηράσκω, γηράσομαι, ἐγήρᾱσα grow old, become old	παίζω, παίξομαι or παιξέομαι, ἔπαισα, play, sport, dance
*δίδωμι, δώσω, ἔδωκα give; allow ‘x’ in dat. or acc. + inf., ἐμὲ (έμοί) εὐτυχέειν δίδως you allow me to prosper	πειράω, πειράσω, ἐπείρασα, attempt, undertake; (mid. and pass) try, make an attempt; make trial of, test + gen.
*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possible	πέλας nearby
ἐράω love; long for, desire + gen.	πίμπλημι fill, fill up; fill ‘x’ (a person or thing) in acc. with ‘y’ a thing in gen.; be full of + gen.
*εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον find out, discover	πίνω, πίομαι or πιέομαι, ἔπιον drink; drink of + gen.
*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well	πρέπω, πρέψω, ἔπρεψα be clearly seen, resemble, seem; be fitting; liken
*θνῄσκω, θανέομαι, ἔθανον die, perish	τάχιστα most quickly
*καθίστημι appoint, establish, put into a state; (intrans.) be established, be appointed	ψαύω, ψαύσω, ἔψαυσα touch + gen.

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns

*------, ἀλλήλων one another	*θεός, θεοῦ ἡ ὁ god, goddess, deity
*ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν good, noble	θνητός, θνητή, θνητόν mortal
ἀμβροσία, ἀμβροσίας ἡ nectar of the gods	*καλός, καλή, καλόν beautiful, noble, good
*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human, person	μέλας, μέλαινα, μέλαν black, dark
ἄριστος, ἀρίστη, ἄριστον best, noblest	μοῖρα, μοίρας ἡ lot; portion; fate
*ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς ἡ rule, command; beginning; empire	*μόνος, μόνη, μόνον only, sole, alone, solitary; one
ἀστήρ, ἀστέρος ὁ star	Ὅμηρος, Ὁμήρου ὁ Homer
Ἀττικός, Ἀττική, Ἀττικόν Attic, Athenian	*ὀλίγος, ὀλίγα, ὀλίγον few
*βίος, βίου ὁ life	ὄμμα, ὄμματος τό eye
βίοτος, βιότου ὁ life	ὀργή, ὀργῆς ἡ impulse; passion, anger
βροτός, βροτοῦ ὁ mortal man; (adj.) mortal	*ὅσος, ὅση, ὅσον so many, as many as
*γῆ, γῆς ἡ land, earth	οὐρανός, οὐρανοῦ ὁ sky, heaven
δένδρεον = δένδρον, -ου τό (-ος, -ους (-εος) τό) tree	πέτρος, πέτρου ὁ rock
δεσπότης, δεσπότου ὁ master	*πόλεμος, πολέμου ὁ war
δούλη, δούλης ἡ slave	σελήνη, σελήνης ἡ moon
δυστυχία, δυστυχίας ἡ ill-luck, ill-fortune	στρατόπεδον, στρατοπέδου τό camp
ἐλευθερία, ἐλευθερίας ἡ freedom, liberty	συντυχία, συντυχίας ἡ incident; fortune
ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος ἡ hope, expectation	*σῶμα, σώματος τό body
ἑταῖρος, ἑταίρου ὁ comrade, companion	τερπνός, τερπνή, τερπνόν delightful, pleasant, agreeable, glad
ἔχθος, ἔχθους (-εος) τό hate, hatred	τέρψις, τέρψεως ἡ pleasure, enjoyment τιμή, τιμῆς ἡ esteem, honor
Ζήν, Ζηνός ὁ Zeus	τιμή, τιμῆς ἡ esteem, honor
Ζωσίμη, Ζωσίμης ἡ Zosime	ὑγίεια, ὑγιείᾱς ἡ health, soundness
ἥλιος, ἡλίου ὁ sun	*φύσις, φύσιος (φύσηος, φύσεως) ἡ nature
Ἡσίοδος, Ἡσιόδου ὁ Hesiod, Greek poet c. 700 BCE	*χρόνος, χρόνου ὁ time
*θάλασσα (θάλαττα), θαλάσσης ἡ sea	ψόγος, ψόγου ὁ blame, flaw, censure
θάνατος, θανάτου ὁ death	*ψυχή, ψυχῆς ἡ life, soul, spirit

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Lucian’s The Lover of Lies (Φιλοψευδής). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Εὐκράτης: κατὰ μικρὸν δὲ φιλοφρονούμενος οὐ πολὺ ἑταῖρος αὐτῷ καὶ συνήθης ἐγενόμην ὥστε πάντων ἐκοίνωσε μοι τῶν ἀπορρήτων. καὶ τέλος ἔπεισε με τοὺς μὲν οἰκέτας πάντας ἐν τῇ Μέμφιδι καταλιπεῖν, αὐτὸν δὲ μόνον ἀκολουθεῖν μετ’ αὐτοῦ· μὴ γὰρ ἀπορήσειν ἡμᾶς ὅτι οἱ πολλοὶ ἡμῖν διακονήσονται. καὶ τὸ μετὰ τοῦτο οὕτω διήγομεν. ἐπεὶ ἤλθομεν εἴς τι καταγώγιον, ἔλαβεν ὁ ἀνὴρ ἢ τὸν μοχλὸν τῆς θύρας ἢ τὸ κόρηθρον ἢ καὶ τὸ ὕπερον καὶ τοῦτο περέβαλεν ἱματίοις. ἔπειτα ἐπιλέγει τινα ἐπῳδὴν καὶ τοῦτο ἐποίει βαδίζειν. δοκέει τοῖς ἄλλοις ἅπασιν ἄνθρωπος εἶναι. τὸ δὲ ἀπέρχεται ὕδωρ τε ἐμπίπλησι καὶ ἐσκεύαζε καὶ πάντα δεξιῶς ὑπηρέτεε καὶ διηκονέετο ἡμῖν. καὶ εἶτα ἐπεὶ ἅλις ἔχει τῆς διακονίας, ὁ δὲ Παγκράτης ἄλλην ἐπῳδὴν ἐπιλέγων αὖθις κόρηθρον τὸ κόρηθρον ἢ ὕπερον τὸ ὕπερον ἐποίεε. τοῦτο ἐγὼ πάνυ ἐσπούδαζον ἐκμανθάνειν παρ’ αὐτοῦ ἀλλὰ οὐκ
εἶχον. ἐβάσκαινε γάρ, καίτοι πρὸς τὰ ἄλλα προχειρότατος ὤν. μιᾷ δέ ποτε ἡμέρᾳ λαθών—ἐν σκοτεινῷ ὑφίστημι—ἐπήκουσα τῆς ἐπῳδῆς· ἦν δὲ τρισύλλαβος σχεδόν. καὶ ὁ μὲν ἐντέλλει τῷ ὑπέρῳ ταῦτα ἃ δεῖ ποιεῖν καὶ ᾤχετο εἰς τὴν ἀγοράν.

Adverbs and Verbs

ἀκολουθέω follow, accompany + dat.	ἐπακούω listen, hear, overhear
ἅλις sufficiently, enough	ἐπιλέγω say, utter, pronounce; pick out, choose; (mid.) think over, consider; read
ἀπέρχομαι, ἀπελεύσομαι, ἀπῆλθον depart, leave	*ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον come, go
ἀπορέω, ἀπορήσομεν, ἠπόρησα be without means or resources; be at a loss, be in doubt; lack + gen.	*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well
αὖθις again, in turn, hereafter, in the future	καίτοι and indeed, and yet; though
βαδίζω, βαδιέω or βαδίσω, ἐβάδισα, walk, go	καταλείπω, -λείψω, -έλιπον leave behind
βασκαίνω slander, malign, bewitch; envy, grudge, keep to oneself	κοινόω, κοινώσω, ἐκοίνωσα communicate, impart; make common, share; (mid.) be partner, be sharer, be partaker + gen.
*γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην be, be born	*λαμβάνω, λήψομαι, ἔλαβον take, receive; capture
*δεῖ, δεήσει it is necessary + dat. or acc. + inf.	οἴχομαι, οἰχήσομαι, ------ go, be gone, have gone
διάγω carry over; (intrans.) cross over; pass, spend; (intrans.) live	*πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα persuade, persuade ‘x’ in acc. + inf.; (mid. or pass.) listen to, obey + dat. or gen.
διακονέω, διακονήσω minister, serve, do service + dat.	περιβάλλω throw around
*δοκέω, δόξω, ἔδοξα seem, think; seem best, think best + inf.	*ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα do, make, cause; (mid.) consider
*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possible	σκευάζω, σκευάσω, ἐσκεύασα prepare, make ready
εἶτα then, next, accordingly	σπουδάζω, σπουδάσω be serious, be earnest; be eager + inf.
ἐκμανθάνω learn, know, examine	σχεδόν near, roughly speaking, about, almost
ἐμπίμπλημι fill, fill up; fill ‘x’ (a person or thing) in acc. with ‘y’ a thing in gen.	ὑπηρετέω, ὑπηρετήσω serve as a rower; minister to, serve + dat.
ἐντέλλω order, enjoin, command	ὑφίστημι place under; put secretly in ambush; lie concealed

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns

ἀγορά, ἀγορᾶς ἡ: agora, marketplace	Μέμφις, Μέμφιδος ἡ Memphis, an Egyptian city on the Nile river south of Cairo, the capital of Egypt c. 2700–2200
*ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο another, other	*μικρός, μικρά, μικρόν small, little, short
*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husband	μοχλός, μοχλοῦ ὁ bar, lever, crowbar
*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human, person	οἰκέτης, οἰκέτου ὁ household slave
ἀπόρρητος, ἀπόρρητον forbidden, secret	Παγκράτης, Παγκράτου ὁ Pankrates
διακονία, διακονίας ἡ service	προχειρότατος, προχειροτάτη, προχειρότατον most at hand, ready
ἐπιλέγων, ἐπιλέγοντος ὁ speaking	σκοτεινός, σκοτεινή, σκοτεινόν dark
ἐπῳδή, ἐπῳδῆς ἡ enchantment, spell, charm	συνήθης, συνήθες living together; well-acquainted, intimate; accustomed, customary
ἑταῖρος, ἑταίρου ὁ comrade, companion	*τέλος, τέλους (-εος) τό: end, boundary; power; office; (acc.) finally
ἡμέρα, ἡμέρας ἡ day	τρισύλλαβος, τρισύλλαβον trisyllabic
θύρα, θύρας ἡ door	ὕδωρ, ὕδατος τό water
ἱμάτιον, ἱματίου τό cloak; piece of dress or cloth; (pl.) clothes	ὕπερον, ὑπέρου τό pestle
καταγώγιον, καταγωγίου τό lodging, inn, resting-place	φιλοφρονεόμενος, φιλοφρονεομένου ὁ treating or dealing with kindly + dat.
κόρηθρον, κορήθρου τό besom, broom	ὤν, ὄντος ὁ being
λαθών, λαθόντος ὁ secretly, by stealth

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give their case and function. For verbs, give their person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

ἓν δὲ βέλτιστον, ὃς κακὰ ἐμὲ ἐποίησε, τοῦτον δέννοις ἀντιδοῦναι κακοῖς. ἔπειτα ἐπιλέγει τινα ἐπῳδὴν καὶ τοῦτο ἐποίεε βαδίζειν.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Eukleides (Euclid) of Alexandria (Εὐκλείδης c. 300 BCE). Born in Alexandria, Eukleides developed a conceptual system of geometry from a small set of axioms. His book, Elements, has been used to teach geometry up until 150 or so years ago. In Elements, Euclid discusses number theory, the connection between perfect numbers and Mersenne primes, the infinity of prime numbers, the uniqueness of prime factorization, and an algorithm for finding a common divisor of two numbers. Until recently Euclid’s geometry was the only geometry possible. As of the 19^th century, mathematicans have discovered other geometries collectively referred to as non-Euclidean. Euclid and the non-Euclidean geometrical systems that followed are examples of discontinuities that created ways of knowing that were novel.

Herms and Phalloi

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Herm of Hermes from Pergamon. Copy of a herm attributed to the sculptor Alkamenes. (Photograph by Kharmacher, 2020, Wikimedia, CC BY-SA, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:20.12_Herme_Alkamenes.png)

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): A Roman gold phallic pendant, found in Essex. (Photographed by Laura Pooley, Colchester Museums, 2006. The Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) is a voluntary programme run by the United Kingdom government to record the increasing numbers of small finds of archaeological interest found by members of the public. The scheme started in 1997 and now covers most of England and Wales. Finds are published at https://finds.org.uk. Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/F...40-334389).jpg)

Considered apotropaic (having the ability to ward off evil), the phallus appears on herms and as a pendant attached to chains and worn around the neck of children.

Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words the greater mastery of the language you will have.

Adjectives

ἑκάτερος, ἑκατέρᾱ, ἑκάτερον each

κοινός, κοινή, κοινόν shared, common; ἐκ τοῦ κοινοῦ shared in common; (n.) τὸ κοινόν the state

οἷος, οἵᾱ, οἷον such, such a kind; οἷός τέ εἰμι I am able, I am of such a kind to + inf.; οἷον or οἷα how, like, as, because

ὅλος, ὅλη, ὅλον whole, entire

Verbs

κρατέω, κρατήσω, ἐκράτησα, ------, ------, ἐκρατήθην be strong, powerful, rule + gen.

μανθάνω, μαθήσομαι, ἔμαθον, μεμάθηκα, ------, ------ learn; learn to, learn how to + inf.; understand

ὁμολογέω, ὁμολογήσω, ὡμολόγησα, ὡμολόγηκα, ὡμολόγημαι, ὡμολογήθην speak together; agree; admit

Etymology Corner XXIX by Dr. E. Del Chrol

Technical Terms 25, Parts of Speech

Adjectives, cont. In Module 27, we meet the three degrees of adjectives and adverbs. We’ve already met the root of degree in progressive and grade, gradior/gress- means step. There are three steps we have with our adjectives.

• Positive degree is the plain, average meaning of the adjective, the one that is placed in the dictionary (from our frequently recurring root, ponere/positus, put or placed).
• When you make a comparison, you are judging two things next to each other to tell which one is bigger, or smarter, or faster. The Latin means along with an equal from com, along with, and par, equal.
  • The degree of difference is the size of the step/distance between two items (dis-/dif-, away from, like in distract (to drag someone’s attention away from something) and ferre which we’ve already met as carry).
• If you had Senior Superlatives in high school, they were used to mark the people most likely to succeed, or with the best smile, or the cutest couple. In my yearbook I was “most likely to write an etymology corner for a Greek textbook”. (At least that’s what it says now that I’ve spent a little time with a label printer.) These people have been carried above all the rest. Super, like where Superman flies, means above, and latus is the past participle of ferre which we met in Comparatives. An adjective or adverb in the superlative degree is the ultimate degree, the highest, best, sweetest, or most honorable, the one that is beyond all the rest.
• Adjectives can be in attributive and predicate position, one of the ways paying close attention to word order is vital for correctly discerning meaning. When something is in attributive position it is an attribute, that is, a quality or characteristic. This comes from the Latin ad + tribuere, to grant or gift to someone, easily seen in the English tribute, a gift given out of respect or esteem. Words in the attributive position are granted to the noun they modify like gifts. Words in the predicate position, on the other hand, are talking about their noun. We met the etymons prae, before, and dicare, to assert or talk about earlier in the textbook. The distinction seems small, but the precision of Greek allows it to say much with these subtle distinctions.

What to Study and Do 29. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized the endings for μι-verbs and that you understand how to translate
and identify each form.

Learning Tip 29: Creation and Destruction. Albert Low argues that the need to create is a fundamental life force of the universe. Ordinary people with ordinary jobs have just as much a need to create as does the expert musician, painter, poet, or scientist. We cannot repress our drive to create. It must be expressed constructively through allowing our imagination to realize its potential. Low argues that if our need to create is repressed, it will be expressed destructively against others or one’s self. Denying the potential that resides in oneself has far-reaching consequences. Accepting it takes courage and involves work.