1.33: Comparative and Superlative Adjectives and Adverbs; Dative of Degree of Difference

Module 27

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0 https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.33

Adjectives

Remember that Greek and English adjectives have the same function, though the Greek adjective has endings and the English adjective does not. Adjectives in both languages are words that describe nouns. In the phrase the happy and sad blues, the, happy, and sad describe the noun blues. The Greek adjective has endings because the endings enable it to agree in gender, case, and number with the noun it modifies.

Adjectives and Degree

English and Greek adjectives have three degrees: positive, comparative, and superlative. English creates the three degrees of the adjective through suffixes or with the adverbs more and most:

Positive:	happy
Comparative:	happier, more happy
Superlative:	happiest, most happy

Greek does the same.

Adjectives of the Comparative and Superlative Degree

Adjectives show degrees by using one of two sets of suffixes or by using the adverb μᾶλλον more for the comparative degree and the adverb μάλιστα most for the superlative degree.

The comparative degree suffixes -τερος, -τέρᾱ, -τερον decline like first and second declension adjectives.

The superlative degree suffixes -τατος, -τάτη, -τατον decline like first and second declension adjectives.

The comparative degree suffixes -ιων, -ιον decline like third declension nouns with some alternate forms.

The superlative degree suffixes -ιστος, -ίστη, -ιστον decline like first and second declension adjectives.

An additional way to form the comparative and superlative is to use the adverbs μᾶλλον or μάλιστα, along with the positive degree of the adjective.

μᾶλλον	+	the positive degree of the adjective.
μάλιστα	+	the positive degree of the adjective.

Declining Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

To form the comparative and superlative degrees of 1st and 2nd declension adjectives, obtain the stem by dropping -ος from the masculine nominative singular.

If the stem ends in a long syllable (a long vowel or diphthong or a short vowel followed by two consonants or by the double consonants -ζ, -ξ, or -ψ), add to it -ότερος, -οτέρᾱ, -ότερον for the comparative and -ότατος, -οτάτη, -ότατον for the superlative.

If the stem ends in a short syllable, add to it -ώτερος, -ωτέρᾱ, -ώτερον for the comparative, and -ώτατος, -ωτάτη, -ώτατον for the superlative.

Consider the following examples.

Comparative degree

M	F	N
δηλότερος	δηλοτέρᾱ	δηλότερον	clearer, more clear
σοφώτερος	σοφωτέρᾱ	σοφώτερον	wiser, more wise

Superlative degree

M	F	N
δηλότατος	δηλοτάτη	δηλότατον	clearest, most clear
σοφώτατος	σοφωτάτη	σοφώτατον	wisest, most wise

Declining Comparative and Superlative Adjectives in -ης, -ες and in -ύς, -εῖα, -ύ

To form the comparative and superlative degrees of 3rd declension adjectives ending in -ης, -ες and of adjectives ending in -ύς, -εῖα, -ύ, add the suffixes directly to the stem without any intervening vowel. The stem of these adjectives is taken from the neuter singular nominative.

Comparative degree

M	F	N
ἀκριβέσ-τερος	ἀκριβεστέρᾱ	ἀκριβέστερον	preciser, more precise
ἀληθέσ-τερος	ἀληθέστέρᾱ	ἀληθέστερον	truer, more true
εὐθύ-τερος	εὐθυτέρᾱ	εὐθύτερον	straighter, more straight

Superlative degree

M	F	N
ἀκριβέσ-τατος	ἀκριβεστάτη	ἀκριβέστατον	precisest, most precise
ἀληθέσ-τατος	ἀληθεστάτη	ἀληθέστατον	truest, most true
εὐθύ-τατος	εὐθυτάτη	εὐθύτατον	straightest, most straight

Declining Comparative and Superlative Adjectives -ίων, -ιον and -ιστος, -ίστη, -ιστον

Adjectives that take -ίων, -ιον in the comparative degree take -ιστος, -ίστη, -ιστον in the superlative degree. The comparative degree declines like a third declension noun with a few alternate forms. The superlative degree declines like 1st and 2nd declension adjectives.

Comparative degree

Singular   M/F N N ἡδίων ἥδιον A ἡδίονα, ἡδίω ἥδιον G ἡδίονος ἡδίονος D ἡδίονι ἡδίονι V ἥδιον ἥδιον	Plural   M/F N N ἡδίονες, ἡδίους ἡδίονα, ἡδίω A ἡδίονας, ἡδίους ἡδίονα, ἡδίω G ἡδιόνων ἡδιόνων D ἡδίοσι (ν) ἡδίοσι (ν) V ἡδίονες, ἡδίους ἡδίονα, ἡδίω
Singular   M/F N N ἡδίων ἥδιον G ἡδίονος ἡδίονος D ἡδίονι ἡδίονι A ἡδίονα, ἡδίω ἥδιον V ἥδιον ἥδιον	Plural   M/F N N ἡδίονες, ἡδίους ἡδίονα, ἡδίω G ἡδιόνων ἡδιόνων D ἡδίοσι (ν) ἡδίοσι (ν) A ἡδίονας, ἡδίους ἡδίονα, ἡδίω V ἡδίονες, ἡδίους ἡδίονα, ἡδίω

Superlative degree

	M	F	N
Ν	ἥδιστος	ἡδίστη	ἥδιστον

Adverbs

Unlike nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, adverbs do not have gender, number, or case. Adverbs modify adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs. Like adjectives, adverbs have three degrees: positive, comparative, and superlative.

For the positive degree English typically adds the suffix -ly. English uses the suffixes -er and -est or more and most to create the comparative and superlative degrees of the adverb:

Positive:	loudly
Comparative:	loudlier, more loudly
Superlative:	loudliest, most loudly

Greek creates the three degrees by adding a suffix.

Adverbs of the Positive Degree

Most adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding -ως to the stem, found by dropping the ending from the masculine genitive singular of the adjective.

ἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιον worthy κακός, κακή, κακόν bad εὐδαίμων, εὔδαιμον happy εὐγενής, εὐγενές noble

ἀξίως worthily κακῶς badly εὐδαιμόνως happily εὐγενῶς nobly

1. Adverbs in -ως accented on the ultima always have a circumflex: κακῶς.

Adverbs of the Comparative Degree

Adverbs formed from adjectives use as their comparative degree the neuter accusative singular of the comparative degree of the adjective.

δικαίως justly σοφῶς wisely ἀληθῶς truly ἡδέως sweetly

δικαιότερον more or rather justly σοφώτερον more or rather wisely ἀληθέστερον more or rather truly ἥδιον more or rather sweetly

Adverbs of the Superlative Degree

Adverbs formed from adjectives use as their superlative degree the neuter accusative plural of the superlative degree of the adjective.

δικαίως justly σοφῶς wisely ἀληθῶς truly ἡδέως sweetly

δικαιότατα most justly σοφώτατα most wisely ἀληθέστατα most truly ἥδιστα most sweetly

Comparison with ἤ and the Genitive Case

When you compare two things as in these sentences,

laughter is stronger than tears,

and

the whole is greater than the part,

using the comparative degree, you may do so by using the word ἤ than or by using the genitive case without ἤ, called a genitive of comparison.

Consider these examples. The underline marks the second item in the comparison.

1. ὁ γέλως κρείττων ἢ οἰμωγή.

Laughter is stronger than tears.

2. ὁ γέλως κρείττων οἰμωγῆς.

Laughter is stronger than tears.

3. καὶ τὸ ὅλον μεῖζον τοῦ μέρους ἐστί.

The whole is greater than the part.

4. καὶ τὸ ὅλον μεῖζον ἢ τὸ μέρος ἐστί.

The whole is greater than the part.

Note that when you use ἤ, the two things being compared are always in the same case.

Dative of Degree of Difference

If you want to state the degree by which one thing is more than another, use the dative case. In this sentence,

πoλλῷ ἥδε σoφωτέρα τῆς μητρός ἐστι,

she is much wiser than her mother,

the πoλλῷ by much is the dative of degree of difference.

Adjectives and Adverbs in Summary

Τhe chart below contains all the information found above, and information on adjectives from other modules, but in a condensed form. Look it over, making sure that you understand how to read it.

Practice Translating Comparative and Superlative Adjectives. Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from a variety of ancient Greek authors. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Satyros of Kallatis, Σάτυρος Κάλλατις c. 150 BCE. Satyros was a philosopher, historian, and biographer whose subjects included kings, philosophers, poets, orators, and statesmen. Fragments of his biography on Euripides were found on a papyrus scroll at Oxyrhynchus, Egypt in the early 1900s.

1. τί νομίζεις τὴν δημοκρατίαν πoλλῷ ἡδίονα τυραννίδος;
2. μικροὶ γέροντι παῖδες ἡδίους πατρὶ καὶ μητρί τινου (Satyros).
3. ὁ δὲ στρατηγὸς ἔφη αὐτὸς κρείττων ὕδατος.
4. θάνατος ἡμᾶς ταῦτα ἀναμιμνήσκει ὅτι ὁ πλοῦτος χείρων ἢ ὑγίεια.
5. τίνι τρόπῳ εἶ τρόπου ἡσυχίου ἐπεὶ τάχιστα εἰς ὀργὴν σπεύδεις;
6. ἔφη μέγιστον γὰρ ἕλκος πόλεως κακὸν ῥήτορα δημαγωγόν· ὃς γὰρ δῆμον πείθει κακὰ ποιέειν (Satyros).
7. ταῦτα γάρ ἐστι δήπου ἃ συνέχει τὴν νεωτέραν κωμωιδίαν καὶ ἃ πρὸς ἄκρον ἤγαγεν Εὐριπίδης (Satyros).
8. ἐν δὲ τούτῳ τῷ καιρῷ κινδυνεύσεις ἐγεῖραί τινα ᾧ τὰ χρήματα πλεῖστα καὶ κρατίστη ἡ ἀνδραγαθία;
9. σκοπέειν δ’ ἄξιον. τί γὰρ εὐλογώτερον ἐπεὶ τάς γε κακίας καὶ τὰς ἀρετάς, καθάπερ ἔλεγεν ὁ Σωκράτης̣, τὰς αὐτὰς̣ ἐν καὶ ἀνδρὶ καὶ γυναικὶ ἔστιν εὑρεῖν (Satyros);
10. ἡ δὲ μεταπέμπει τὴν ἄνθρωπον καὶ ἰδοῦσα τὸ κάλλος, “χαῖρε,” φησίν, “γύναι· ψευδεῖς ἄρ’ αἱ διαβολαί· σὺ γὰρ ἐν τῷ προσώπῳ τῷ σῷ καὶ τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς ἔχεις φάρμακα κάλλιστα (Satyros).

Vocabulary

*ἄγω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον do, drive, lead; χάριν ἄγω I give thanks	*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπον say, tell, speak
ἄκρον ἄκρου τό top, furthest point; mountain top	μέγιστος, μεγίστη, μέγιστον greatest
ἀναμιμνήσκω call to mind, remind	μεταπέμπω send for, send after
ἀνδραγαθία, ἀνδραγαθίας ἡ courage, bravery	*μήτηρ, μητέρος (μητρός) ἡ mother
*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husband	*μικρός, μικρά, μικρόν small
*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human, person	νεώτερος, νεωτέρα, νεώτερον newer
*ἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιον worthy, deserving + gen.	*νομίζω, νομιέω, ἐνόμισα believe, think, have the custom of, hold as custom
*ἀρετή, ἀρετῆς ἡ virtue; excellence	ὀργή, ὀργῆς ἡ mood; anger, wrath
γέρων, γέροντος ὁ old man	*ὁράω, ὄψομαι, εἶδον (ἰδεῖν) see
*γυνή, γυναικός ἡ woman, wife	ὀφθαλμός, ὀφθαλμοῦ ὁ eye
δημαγωγός, δημαγωγοῦ ὁ demagogue	παίζω play, sport, dance
δημοκρατία, δημοκρατίας ἡ democracy	*παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ child
*δῆμος, δήμου ὁ people	*πατήρ, πατρός ὁ father
δήπου surely	*πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα persuade + inf.; (mid. or pass.) listen to, obey + dat. or gen.
διαβολή διαβολῆς ἡ slander	*πλεῖστος, πλείστη, πλεῖστον most, greatest, largest
ἐγείρω, ἐγερέω, ἤγειρα awaken, rouse	πλοῦτος, πλούτου ὁ wealth
ἕλκος, ἕλκεος (-ους) τό wound	*ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα do, make, cause; (mid.) consider
εὐλογώτερος, εὐλογώτερον more reasonable	*πόλις, πόλιος (πόληος, πόλεως) ἡ city
Εὐριπίδης, Εὐριπίδου ὁ Euripides, tragic playwright from Athens, c. 450 BCE	πρόσωπον, προσώπου τό face
*εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον find	ῥήτωρ, ῥήτορος ὁ rhetor, speaker
*ἔφη he, she, it said	*σκοπέω, σκοπήσω, ἐσκόπησα, look at; examine; consider
*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well	*σός, σή, σόν your
ἡδίων, ἥδιον sweeter, pleasanter	σπεύδω, σπεύσω, ἔσπευσα urge on, press on; hasten, be eager
ἡσύχιος, ἡσύχιον quiet	συνέχω make up, contain
θάνατος, θανάτου ὁ death	Σωκράτης̣, Σωκράτους ὁ Sokrates, Plato’s teacher and famous oral philosopher c. 450 BCE
ἰδοῦσα, ἰδούσης ἡ seeing, having seen	τάχιστα most quickly
καθάπερ just as	*τρόπος, τρόπου ὁ way, manner, turn; (pl.) character
*καιρός, καιροῦ ὁ right moment, critical time, opportunity	τυραννίς, τυραννίδος ἡ tyranny
κακία, κακίας ἡ wickedness; fault	ὑγίεια, ὑγιείᾱς ἡ health, soundness
*κακός, κακή, κακόν bad, evil, cowardly	ὕδωρ, ὕδατος τό water; pond
κάλλιστος, καλλίστη, κάλλιστον most beautiful	φάρμακον, φαρμάκου τό drugs, medicine
κάλλος, κάλλεος (κάλλους) τό beauty	*φημί say, affirm, assert
κινδυνεύω, κινδυνεύσω, ἐκινδύνευσα run a risk, hazard; dare + inf.; be likely + inf.	χαίρω be well; rejoice at, take pleasure in + dat.
κράτιστος, κρατίστη, κράτιστον strongest	χείρων, χεῖρον worse, inferior
κρείττων, κρεῖττον better, stronger, greater	*χρῆμα, χρήματος τό thing; (pl.) goods, money, property
κωμωιδία, κωμωιδίας ἡ comedy	ψευδής, ψευδές false

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Homer’s Odyssey (Ὀδύσσεια). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

	Πηνελόπεια: δοιαὶ γάρ τε πύλαι ἀμενηνῶν εἰσὶν ὀνείρων· αἱ μὲν γὰρ κεράεσι τεύχονται, αἱ δ’ ἐλέφαντι. αὐτῶν οἱ μὲν ἔρχονται διὰ πριστοῦ ἐλέφαντος. οὗτοι ῥ’ ἐλεφαίρονται καὶ ἔπε’ ἀκράαντα φέρουσιν. οἱ δὲ διὰ ξεστῶν κεράων ἔρχονται θύραζε. οὗτοι ῥ’ ἔτυμα κραίνουσι, βροτῶν εἴ τις ὁράει. ἀλλʼ ἐμοὶ οὐκ ἐντεῦθεν οἴομαι αἰνὸν ὄνειρον ἐλθεῖν. εἰ οὕτως, ἦ ἀσπαστὸν ἐμοὶ καὶ παιδὶ γενήσεται. ἄλλο δέ σοι ἐρέω· ἥδε δὲ ἠὼς ἐλεύσεται δυσώνυμος, ἣ μ’ Ὀδυσσέως οἴκου ἀποσχήσει. νῦν γὰρ καταθήσω ἄεθλον, τοὺς πελέκεας, οὓς κεῖνος ἐν μεγάροις ἵστησιν ἑξείης, δρυόχους ὥς, δώδεκα πάντας. ἵστησιν δ’ ὅ γε πολὺ ἄνευθε καὶ διαρριπτάσκει οἰστόν. νῦν δὲ μνηστήρεσιν ἄεθλον τοῦτον ἐφήσω· ὃς δὲ ῥηΐτατʼ ἐντανύει βιὸν ἐν παλάμαις καὶ διοϊστεύει πελέκεων δυοκαίδεκα πάντων, τούτῳ αὐτὴ ἅμ’ ἕψομαι. καὶ νοφίσομαι τόδε δῶμα κουρίδιον, μάλα καλόν, ἐνίπλειον βιότου, οὗ ποτὲ μνήσεσθαι οἴομαι ἔν περ ὀνείρῳ.
	Ὀδυσσεύς ξεῖνος: ὦ γύναι αἰδοίη Λαερτιάδου Ὀδυσσέως, δεῖ μηκέτι νῦν ἀναβάλλειν δόμοις ἔνι τοῦτον ἄεθλον. πρὶν γὰρ πολύμητις ἐλεύσεται ἐνθάδ’ Ὀδυσσεύς, πρὶν τούτους τόδε τόξον ἐΰξοον ἀμφαφάειν τε νευρήν τ’ ἐντανύσαι διοϊστεῦσαί τε σιδήρου.
	Πηνελόπεια: εἰ ἐθέλεις παρά μοι, ξεῖνε, ἧσθαι ἐν μεγάροις καὶ τέρπειν, οὐκ οἴομαί μοι ὕπνον ἐπὶ βλεφάροις χυθήσεσθαι.

Adverbs and Verbs

ἀμφαφάω touch, feel, handle	ἦ in truth, verily
ἀναβάλλω, -βαλέω, -έβαλον strike up; throw up; delay	ἧμαι (ἧσαι, ἧσται, ἥμεθα, ἧστε, ἧνται; ἧσθαι) sit
ἄνευθε far away, distant	θύραζε to the doors, out of doors
ἀπέχω keep off or away from	*ἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστησα or ἔστην stand, make stand, place
*γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην be, be born	κατατίθημι place, put, lay down
*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary to come	κραίνω, κρανέω, ἔκρανα accomplish, fulfil, bring to pass
διαρριπτάσκω shoot through, cast	*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπον say, tell, speak
διοϊστεύω shoot an arrow through + gen.	μάλα very
*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possible	μηκέτι no longer
*ἐθέλω, ἐθελήσω, ἠθέλησα wish, be willing	μιμνήσκω, μνήσω, ἔμνησα remember + gen.
ἐλεφαίρομαι cheat with empty hopes	νοφίζω, νοφιέω νοφίσομαι, ἐνόφισα turn away, shrink back; forsake, abandon
ἐνθάδε here, there; hither, thither	*οἴομαι (οἶμαι), οἰήσομαι, ᾠσάμην think, suppose, believe
ἐνί = ἐν	*ὁράω, ὄψομαι, εἶδον (ἰδεῖν) see
ἐντανύω stretch, bend, string	ῥηΐτατα most easily
ἐντεῦθεν (ἐνθεῦτεν) thence, hence	τέρπω, τέρψω, ἐτερψα delight, cheer; enjoy + dat.
ἑξείης in order, in a row	τεύχω, τεύξω, ἔτευξα make ready, make, produce; cause, bring to pass
*ἕπομαι (imp. εἱπόμην), ἕψομαι, ἑσπόμην follow + dat.	*φέρω, οἴσω, ἤνεγκα or ἤνεγκον bring, bear, carry; endure
*ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον (ἐλθεῖν) come, go	χέω, χέω, ἔχεα, κέχυκα, κέχυμαι, ἐχύθην pour; (pass.) be heaped up
ἐφίημι, -ήσω, -ῆκα send on, against; let go, yield; (mid.) command, give orders; (mid.) aim at, long for + gen.; (mid.) allow, permit + ‘x’ in dat. + inf.

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns

ἄεθλον, ἀέθλου τό prize, contest	ἠώς, ἠούς ἡ dawn
αἰδοῖος, αἰδοία, αἰδοῖον: deserving of awe, respect; valuable, excellent; bashful, modest; τὰ αἰδοῖα private parts	*καλός, καλή, καλόν beautiful, good, noble
αἰνός, αἰνή, αἰνόν dread, dire, grim	κεῖνος, κείνου ὁ he, that one
ἀκράαντος, ἀκράαντον unfulfilled, fruitless	κέρας, κέραος τό horn of an animal
*ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο another, other	κουρίδιος, κουριδία, κουρίδιον wedded, nuptial, bridal
ἀμενηνός, ἀμενηνόν powerless, fleeting, feeble	Λαερτιάδης, Λαερτιάδου ὁ son of Laertes
ἀσπαστός, ἀσπαστή, ἀσπαστόν welcome	μέγαρον, μεγάρου τό megaron, great hall
βιός, βιοῦ ὁ bow	μνηστήρ, μνηστῆρος ὁ (epic dat. pl. μνηστήρεσσιν) suitor
βίοτος, βιότου ὁ life	νευρή, νευρῆς ἡ sinew, bow-string; cord
βλέφαρα, βλεφάρων τά eyelids, eyes	ξεῖνος (ξένος), ξείνου (ξένου) ὁ stranger; guest-friend
βροτός, βροτοῦ ὁ mortal	ξεστός, ξεστή, ξεστόν smooth, polished, wrought
*γυνή, γυναικός ἡ woman, wife	Ὀδυσσεύς, Ὀδυσσέως ὁ Odysseus
δοιός, δοιά, δοιόν two	οἶκος, οἴκου ὁ house, palace
δόμος, δόμου ὁ house	οἰστός, οἰστοῦ ὁ arrow
δρύοχοι, δρυόχων οἱ props, stays, shores (on which the frame of a ship is propped)	ὄνειρος, ὀνείρου ὁ dream
δυοκαίδεκα twelve	*παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ child
δυσώνυμος, δυσώνυμον bearing an ill name, ill-omened	παλάμη, παλάμης ἡ palm, hand
δώδεκα twelve	πέλεκυς, πελέκεως ὁ axe
δῶμα, δώματος τό house	πολύμητις, πολυμήτιος of many counsels
ἐλέφας, ἐλέφαντος ὁ elephant; elephant’s tusk; ivory	πριστός, πριστή, πριστόν sawn
ἐνίπλειος, ἐνίπλειον full of + gen.	πύλη, πύλης ἡ gate
ἔπος, ἔπεος (ἔπους) τό word, speech; song; saying; verse	σίδηρος, σιδήρου ὁ iron
ἔτυμος, ἔτυμον true, real, actual	τόξον, τόξου τό bow
ἐΰξοος, ἐΰξοον polished	ὕπνος, ὕπνου ὁ sleep

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give their case and function. For verbs, their give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

οὖν τι βούλῃ περὶ τῶν ἐκεῖ φράζειν ἐμοί ἢ ἄπειμι;

εἴ ἐθέλεις παρά μοι, ξεῖνε, ἧσθαι ἐν μεγάροις καὶ τέρπειν, οὐκ οἴομαί μοι ὕπνον ἐπὶ βλεφάροις χυθήσεσθαι.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Boustrophedon

Boustrophedon is a way of writing that starts in the way that we are used to but upon reaching the end of the line the writing turns back on itself with the letters facing in the new direction, much as a farmer, plowing a field, turns his cow at row’s end.

Fig. 2 Schematic of reverse boustrophedon text, in the fashion of rongorongo, but using the Latin alphabet. Created by Kwamikagami, 2008, Wikimedia, public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reverse_boustrophedon.png

Fig. 3 Fragmentary boustrophedon inscription in the agora of Gortyn (Crete)—code of law. Photograph by PRA, 2009, Wikimedia, CC BY, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crete_-_law_of_Gortyn_-_boustrophedon.JPG

In cultures where books are expensive and difficult to acquire, one book serves many readers and people learn how to read words from many different angles, including upside down. For them, reading upside down is as rightside up as reading rightside up is to us. As you consider the many ways that people differ from each other, also consider how culture determines much of what we assume, believe, desire, think about, and value. These differences represent the vast range of human potential and possibility.

Module 27 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words the greater mastery of the language you will have.

Adjectives

λοιπός, λοιπή, λοιπόν left, remaining

μέσος, μέση, μέσον middle, middle of + gen.

μικρός, μικρά, μικρόν small, little, short

Verbs

εἶμι come, go

ἔρομαι (εἴρομαι), ἐρήσομαι (εἰρήσομαι), ἠρόμην, -----, -----, ----- ask, ask ‘x’ in acc. about ‘y’ in acc.

εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον, ηὕρηκα, ηὕρημαι, ηὑρέθην find out, discover

ἥκω, ἥξω, ------, ------, ------, ------ have come, be present

πάρειμι go in, enter; pass by

Etymology Corner XXVII by Dr. E. Del Chrol

Technical Terms 23, Parts of Speech

Verbs, cont. As we learned in Module 17, infinitives can be dynamic, or potential in their meaning, which is a good translation of the Greek ἐν δυνάμει. Think of the English dynamic meaning powerful or having capacity/potential to act, or a dynamo, a type of generator for electricity (i.e. power). Some infinitives we see in Module 24 are declarative, in that they make clear (from Latin clarare, which gives us the English clarify) what is introduced by the verb of saying, thinking or perceiving. Declarative infinitives are used in some types of indirect statement, that is, statements (utterances that stand firmly, Latin stare) that come not from a straight path (in, not¸ dis, apart from, regere, to keep in a straight line, which gives us regular, rule, and ruler). A direct statement is a quotation, a straight-forward repeating of an utterance. An indirect statement requires someone to report what someone said, adding one layer of complexity, which makes it not a straight quotation. What someone said is made clear with their declarative infinitive.

What to Study and Do 27. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you refresh your memory on noun and adjective agreement and how adjectives can function as substantives. Memorize the definition of the positive, comparative, and superlative adjectives and adverbs. Memorize the function of the genitive of comparison and the dative of degree of difference. Finally make sure that you understand how to read the chart on adjectives and adverbs.

Learning Tip 27: Learn to Engage in Debate and Disagreement. When considering life’s essential problems that admit of no one right solution, seek to understand before being understood. Understand the arguments of the other so well that you can reproduce them to the other’s satisfaction. Help others clarify their arguments so that they are not misunderstood. Debate so as to bring out the best in others and let others bring out the best in you. Learn how to disagree without being disagreeable. Debate and disagreement help us to learn deeply and well.