1.11: The Verbs ἔχω, ποιέω, ἔρχομαι, φημί

Module 10

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0 https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.11

The Verb

In Greek and in English, verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for person and number.

In this module you will see how endings create meaning in the omega- or ω-verb ἔχω, the contract ω-verb ποιέω, the deponent ω-verb ἔρχομαι, and the μι-verb φημί.

Present Tense Stems

To obtain the present tense stem, remove the ending –ω or –ομαι. What remains is the present tense stem, the base of the word the ending is joined to. To this stem, add the present tense endings.

Present Tense Endings

Add to the correct tense stem.

Primary Active (use for the present and future active tense)
		S	Pl
	1st	-ω	-ομεν
	2nd	-εις	-ετε
	3rd	-ει	-ουσι (ν)
Present Infinitive Active
		-ειν

The ω-Verb ἔχω

ἔχω is referred to as an ω-verb because it ends in omega in the first person singular, present indicative active of the first principal part. ω-verbs differ from μι-verbs in stems and in endings in some tenses. All ω-verbs form their present indicative active just as ἔχω does. In the readings that follow, use your knowledge of ἔχω to recognize and translate the forms of other ω-verbs.

Present Indicative Active of ἔχω
	Verb Form	English Equivalent	Person and Number
	ἔχω	I have	1st person singular
	ἔχεις	you have	2nd person singular
	ἔχει	he, she, it has	3rd person singular
	ἔχομεν	we have	1st person plural
	ἔχετε	you have	2nd person plural
	ἔχουσι (ν)	they have	3rd person plural
Present Infinitive Active of ἔχω
	ἔχειν	to have	unmarked

Practice Translating ἔχω. Translate the sentences below, adapted from a variety of ancient Greek authors. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded, dative endings are highlighted, and accusative endings are underlined. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Case	Ending	Function
Nominative	-η, -οι, -ον, -ος	subject of the verb
Dative	-ῃ, -ι, -οις, -ῳ	indirect object of the verb
Accusative	-α, -αν, -ην, -ν, -ον, -ους	object of a verb or preposition

1. αὐτὴ μητρὶ διαφορὰν ἔχει.
2. ἔργον γὰρ ἔχει τέρψιν αὐτῇ.
3. ἔμψυχοί ἐσμεν καὶ γνώμην ἔχομεν.
4. οὐχ οὕτως ἔχει γυναικί.
5. καὶ νῦν ἔχομεν καλῶς ἔχειν.
6. καὶ φόβος αὐτὸν ἔχει καὶ διὰ ταῦτα φεύγει.
7. νύμφῃ γὰρ ἔστι γῆν καὶ δόμους ἔχειν.
8. πολλὰ γὰρ αὐτῷ εἰπεῖν ἔχω.
9. εἶ σοφὴ καὶ δόξαν ἔχεις.
10. ἀλλ᾽ ἔχεις ἥσυχος καὶ οὐ πολλὰ λέγεις.

Verbs

*εἰμί be, be possible

*εἰπεῖν to say

*ἔστι it is possible

*ἔχω have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well

*λέγω say, tell, speak

*φεύγω flee

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns

Νοminative Case	Dative Case	Accusative Case	English Equivalent
*αὐτή	αὐτῇ	αὐτήν	she, her, hers
*αὐτός	αὐτῷ	αὐτόν	he, him, his
*γῆ	γῇ	γῆν	land, earth
γνώμη	γνώμῃ	γνώμην	judgment, thought
*γυνή	γυναικί	γυναῖκα	woman, wife
διαφορά	διαφορᾷ	διαφοράν	disagreement
δόξα	δόξᾳ	δόξαν	belief, reputation
δόμοι	δόμοις	δόμους	house, houses
ἔμψυχοι	ἐμψύχοις	ἐμψύχους	alive
*ἔργον	ἔργῳ	ἔργον	deed, task, work
ἥσυχος	ἡσύχῳ	ἥσυχον	quiet
*μήτηρ	μητρί	μητέρα	mother
νύμφη	νύμφῃ	νύμφην	bride
*πόλλα	πόλλοις	πόλλα	many things
σοφή	σοφῇ	σοφήν	wise
*ταῦτα	τούτοις	ταῦτα	these things
τέρψις	τέρψει	τέρψιν	enjoyment, delight
φόβος	φόβῳ	φόβον	fear

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

The Contract ω-Verb ποιέω

ποιέω is referred to as a contract ω-verb because its stem ends in epsilon in the first person singular, present indicative active of the first principal part. When the stem of principal part I or II ends in epsilon, the epsilon may contract with the endings in accordance with the chart below. In the readings that follow, use your knowledge of ποιέω to recognize and translate the forms of other epsilon contract ω-verbs. A second type of contract verb with its stem ending in alpha is introduced in Modules 17 and 19. Module 24 presents contract verbs in alpha, epsilon, and omega.

ε + ε > ει	ε + ο > ου
ε + ει > ει	ε + οι > οι
ε + η > η	ε + ου > ου
ε + ῃ > ῃ	ε + ω > ω

Present Indicative Active of ποιέω
	Verb Form	English Equivalent	Person and Number
	ποιῶ (ποιέω)	I do, I make	1st person singular
	ποιεῖς (ποιέεις)	you do, you make	2nd person singular
	ποιεῖ (ποιέει)	he, she, it does or makes	3rd person singular
	ποιοῦμεν (ποιέομεν)	we do, we make	1st person plural
	ποιεῖτε (ποιέετε)	you do, you make	2nd person plural
	ποιοῦσι (ν) (ποιέουσι(ν))	they do, they make	3rd person plural
Present Infinitive Active of ποιέω
	ποιεῖν (ποιέειν)	to do, to make	unmarked

1. Uncontracted forms are in parentheses. In order to produce an accurate form, accent before you contract.
2. The accent on a contracted ultima is a circumflex. The accent on contracted penults and antepenults is determined by the rules for the possibilities of accents.

Practice Translating ποιέω. Translate the sentences below, adapted from a variety of ancient Greek authors. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Also in the sentences the definite article, which will be learned systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in these forms: ὁ, τάς, τήν, τῆς, τό, τοῖς, τοῦ. Translate each one as the. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Case	Ending	Function
Nominative	-ευς, -ης, -ο, -ος	subject of the verb
Genitive	-ης, -ου, -ους, -ων	dependence; genitive with ἄξια and ἐναντίον
Dative	-οις, -ῳ	dative with ἔκδοτον; indirect object of the verb; object of the preposition
Accusative	-α, -αν, -ας, -ε, -ην, -ο, -ον	object of a verb or preposition

1. ἀναγκάζουσιν αὐτὸν ποιεῖν ὃ βούλονται (Lysias, Attic orator).
2. ποιεῖς τὸ ἐναντίον οὗ βούλομαι (Demosthenes, Attic orator).
3. ἔκδοτον σεαυτὴν ποιεῖς πόντῳ τῆς λύπης (Anna Komnene, Byzantine author).
4. ἐμέ τʼ ἄχθεσθαι ποιεῖ (Αristophanes, Lysistrata).
5. ἐμὲ ποιεῖτε κοιμᾶσθαι ψυχροῖς τοῖς παρὰ προθύροις (Kallimakhos, Alexandrian poet).
6. ταῦτα δʼ ἄξια σεαυτῆς τε ποιεῖς καὶ τέκνων (Euripides, Andromakhe).
7. πολλὴν ἐμὲ τοῖς θεοῖς ποιεῖς χάριν ὀφείλειν (Xenophon, Kyropaidia).
8. τί γὰρ Ζεὺς ποιεῖ; ἀπαιθριάζει τὰς νεφέλας ἢ συννέφει (Aristophanes, Birds);
9. ὁ πινοτήρης ὁ σμικρότατος τοῦ γένους τὴν τραγῳδίαν ποιεῖ (Aristophanes, Wasps).
10. πῶς ὃ θέλομεν οὐ ποιοῦμεν καὶ ὃ μὴ θέλομεν ποιοῦμεν (Epiktetos, Stoic Philosopher);

Verbs

ἀναγκάζω force, compel	κοιμᾶσθαι go to sleep
ἀπαιθριάζω clear away	ὀφείλω owe; be obliged to + inf.
ἄχθομαι be annoyed, vexed, grieved	*ποιέω, ποιήσω do, make, cause
*βούλομαι want, prefer; wish, be willing	συννέφω collect clouds
*θέλω wish, be willing

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns

Νοminative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative	English Equivalent
*ἄξια	ἀξίων	ἀξίοις	ἄξια	worthy, deserving + gen.
*αὐτός	αὐτοῦ	αὐτῷ	αὐτόν	he, him, his
*γένος	γένους	γένει	γένος	race, kind, sort
*ἐγώ	ἐμοῦ	ἐμοί	ἐμέ	I, me, mine
ἔκδοτος	ἐκδότου	ἐκδότῳ	ἔκδοτον	subject to + dat.
ἐναντίον	ἐναντίου	ἐναντίῳ	ἐναντίον	opposite
*θεοί	θεῶν	θεοῖς	θεούς	gods
λύπη	λύπης	λύπῃ	λύπην	pain, grief
νεφέλαι	νεφελῶν	νεφέλαις	νεφέλας	clouds
*ὅ	οὗ	ᾧ	ὅ	what
πινοτήρης	πινοτήρου	πινοτήρῃ	πινοτήρην	crab
*πόλλη	πόλλης	πόλλῃ	πόλλην	much, many
πόντος	πόντου	πόντῳ	πόντον	sea
πρόθυρον	προθύρου	προθύρῳ	πρόθυρον	front door
σεαυτή	σεαυτῆς	σεαυτῇ	σεαυτήν	yourself
σμικρότατος	σμικροτάτου	σμικροτάτῳ	σμικρότατον	smallest
τέκνα	τέκνων	τέκνοις	τέκνα	children
*τί	τίνος	τίνι	τί	what
τραγῳδία	τραγῳδίας	τραγῳδίᾳ	τραγῳδίαν	tragedy
χάρις	χάριτος	χάριτι	χάριν	grace, favor, thanks
ψυχρά	ψυχρῶν	ψυχροῖς	ψυχρά	cold

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

The Deponent Verb ἔρχομαι

Deponent verbs are similar to other verbs except that they do not have active forms. Rather they have middle and passive forms that have active meanings. All deponent ω-verbs form their present indicative just as ἔρχομαι does. In the readings that follow, use your knowledge of ἔρχομαι to recognize and translate the forms of other deponent ω-verbs.

Present Tense Stems

To obtain the present tense stem, remove the ending -ομαι. What remains, ἔρχ-, is the present tense stem.

Present Tense Endings

Primary Middle and Passive Endings (with active meaning). Add these endings to the correct tense stem.
		S	Pl
	1st	-ομαι	-ομεθα
	2nd	-ει, ῃ (-εσαι)	-εσθε
	3rd	-εται	-ονται
Present Infinitive
		-εσθαι

Remember that deponent verbs are active in meaning and middle and passive in form.

Present Indicative of ἔρχομαι
	Verb Form	English Equivalent	Person and Number
	ἔρχομαι	I go	1st person singular
	ἔρχει, ἔρχῃ	you go	2nd person singular
	ἔρχεται	he, she, it goes	3rd person singular
	ἐρχόμεθα	we go	1st person plural
	ἔρχεσθε	you go	2nd person plural
	ἔρχονται	they go	3rd person plural
Present Infinitive of ἔρχομαι
	ἔρχεσθαι	to go	unmarked

Historical Present

The present tense in Greek can be used when writing about past events. In these situations, it is referred to as a historic, or storytelling, present. The reason why authors switch to the present tense when writing about the past varies. Some possibilities include emphasis, vividness, and stating current or general truths.

Practice Translating ἔρχομαι. Translate the sentences below, adapted from a variety of ancient Greek authors. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Also in the sentences the definite article, which will be learned systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in these forms: τά, τῇ, τήν, τῆς, τό. Translate each one as the. As you translate, consider the frequent use of the historical present in Greek. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Case	Ending	Function
Nominative	-α, -η,-ος	subject of the verb
Genitive	-ης, -ου, -ων	object of a prefix
Dative	-ῃ, -ι, -ῳ	indirect object of the verb; object of verb’s prefix
Accusative	-α, -αν, -ην, -ν, -ο, -ον	object of verb or preposition

1. προσέρχεσθε τὴν πόλιν ὅτι κακῶς ἔχετε.
2. ἄλγος εἰς αὐτὴν ἔρχεται ὅτι κακῶς ἔχουσιν.
3. τῆς δὲ γῆς ἀπέρχονται τὰ ἄλλα ἰδεῖν καὶ μαθεῖν.
4. ὁράω γὰρ ὅτι οὐκ ἔρχῃ πρὸς καιρόν.
5. καίτοι οὐκ ἐπέρχεται τό γ᾽ αἴνιγμα διειπεῖν.
6. καὶ ἐρχόμεθα εἴσω καὶ τῇ γυναικὶ ταῦτα δίδομεν.
7. αὐτῇ συνέρχομαι καὶ τῆς δὲ γῆς ἀπερχόμεθα.
8. οὐκ ἔχω φόβον ἐπεὶ φίλος ἔρχομαι.
9. ἐγὼ δὲ προσέρχομαι καὶ κόπτω τὴν θύραν.
10. ἐγὼ δὲ παρέρχομαι εἴσω καὶ αὐτῷ τὰ γράμματα δίδωμι.

Adverbs and Verbs

ἀπέρχομαι depart, leave	καίτοι and indeed, and yet; though
*δίδωμι give; δίκην δίδωμι I pay the penalty; δίδωμι χάριν I give thanks	κόπτω strike
διειπεῖν to explain	*ἰδεῖν to see
*εἰπεῖν to say	*μαθεῖν to learn
εἴσω inside	*ὁράω see
ἐπέρχομαι approach, attack	παρέρχομαι come forward, pass by, go by
*ἔρχομαι come, go	προσέρχομαι advance, go, come towards
*ἔχω have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well	συνέρχομαι come together, confer

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns

Νοminative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative	English Equivalent
αἴνιγμα	αἰνίγματος	αἰνίγματι	αἴνιγμα	riddle
ἄλγος	ἄλγεος	ἄλγει	ἄλγος	pain, grief
*ἄλλα	ἄλλων	ἄλλοις	ἄλλα	other things
*αὐτή	αὐτῆς	αὐτῇ	αὐτήν	she, her, hers
*αὐτός	αὐτοῦ	αὐτῷ	αὐτόν	he, him, his
*γῆ	γῆς	γῇ	γῆν	land, earth
γράμματα	γράμματος	γράμματι	γράμματα	letter
*γυνή	γυναικός	γυναικί	γυναῖκα	woman, wife
θύρα	θύρας	θύρᾳ	θύραν	door
*καιρός	καιροῦ	καιρῷ	καιρόν	right moment, critical time, opportunity
*πόλις	πόλεως	πόλει	πόλιν	city
*ταῦτα	τούτων	τούτοις	ταῦτα	these things
*φίλος	φίλου	φίλῳ	φίλον	friend
*φόβος	φόβου	φόβῳ	φόβον	fear

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

The μι-Verb φημί

Though not as numerous as omega- or ω-verbs, μι-verbs occur frequently. μι-verbs conjugate differently from ω-verbs in some tenses, typically the present, imperfect, aorist, and sometimes the perfect. In conjugating these verb forms, learn which stem to combine with which ending. The stem is the base of the word to which the ending is joined. Once you have the correct stem and ending, combine them to create the correct form. You may memorize the stems and endings or you may learn how to combine stems and endings so that you can recognize the forms as you encounter them.

Present Tense Stems

Use the long vowel grade stem for the singular (I, you, he, she, it) and the short vowel grade for the plural (we, you, they). Note that the stems differ even within the same tense, mood, and voice.

long vowel grade stem	short vowel grade stem
(use for the singular)	(use for the plural)
φη-	φα-

Present Tense Endings

Add to the correct tense stem.

Primary Active (use for the present tense)
		S	Pl
	1st	-μι	-μεν
	2nd	-ς	-τε
	3rd	-σι (ν)	-ᾱσι (ν)
Present Infinitive Active
		-ναι

Present Indicative Active of φημί
Stem Vowel Grade	Verb Form	English Equivalent	Person and Number
long	φημί	I say	1st person singular
long	φής, φῄς, φῇσθα	you say	2nd person singular
long	φησί (ν)	he, she, it says	3rd person singular
short	φαμέν	we say	1st person plural
short	φατέ	you say	2nd person plural
short	φᾱσί (ν)	they say	3rd person plural
Present Infinitive Active of φημί
short	φάναι	to say	unmarked

Practice Translating φημί. Translate the sentences below, adapted from Euripides’ Alkestis (Ἄλκηστις). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Also in the sentences the definite article, which will be learned systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in this form: ὁ. Translate it as the. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Case	Ending	Function
Nominative	-ης, -ο, -ος	subject of the verb
Genitive	-ας, -ου	dependence, possession
Dative	-ᾳ, -ι, -οις,	indirect object of the verb
Accusative	-αν, -ε, -ην, -ον, -ος	object of a verb or preposition

1. Ἄλκηστίς φησι· Ἥλιον καὶ φάος ἡμέρας ὁράω.
2. Ἄδμητός φησι· ὁ Ἥλιος ὁράει σὲ καὶ ἐμέ.
3. Ἄλκηστίς φησι· ὁ Ἥλιος ὁράει γῆν τε καὶ πατρίαν Ἰωλκοῦ.
4. Ἄδμητός φησι· σοί φημι μὴ προδιδόναι ἐμέ.
5. Ἄλκηστίς φησι· ὁράω δίκωπον καὶ ὁράω σκάφος ἐν λίμνᾳ.
6. Ἄδμητός φησι· ἐμοὶ φὴς πικράν γε ναυκληρίαν.
7. Ἄλκηστίς φησι· ἄγει με. ὁ Ἅιδης ἄγει με. οὐχ ὁράεις;
8. Ἄδμητός φησι· καὶ οἰκτρὰν φίλοις καὶ παισὶ φῄς γε ναυκληρίαν.
9. Ἄλκηστίς φησι· δεῖ σοὶ μεθιέναι με ἤδη.
10. Ἄδμητός φησι· οἴμοι· φῇσθα ἔπος λυπρὸν ἀκούειν.

Ιnterjection and Verbs

*ἄγω, do, drive, lead	οἴμοι alas
*ἀκούω hear, listen	*ὁράω see
*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary to come	προδιδόναι to betray
μεθιέναι to release, to let go	φημί say, tell, speak of

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns

Νοminative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative	English Equivalent
Ἄδμητος	Ἀδμήτου	Ἀδμήτῳ	Ἄδμητον	Admetos
Ἅιδης	Ἅιδου	Ἅιδῃ	Ἅιδην	Hades
*γῆ	γῆς	γῇ	γῆν	land, earth
δίκωπον	δικώπου	δικώπῳ	δίκωπον	two-oared
*ἐγώ	ἐμοῦ	ἐμοί	ἐμέ	I, me, mine
ἔπος	ἔπεος	ἔπει	ἔπος	word, speech
῞Ηλιος	Ἡλίου	Ἡλίῳ	῞Ηλιον	Helios
ἡμέρα	ἡμέρας	ἡμέρᾳ	ἡμέραν	day
Ἰωλκός	Ἰωλκοῦ	Ἰωλκῷ	Ἰωλκόν	Iolkos (city)
λίμνα	λίμνας	λίμνᾳ	λίμναν	lake
λυπρόν	λυπροῦ	λυπρῷ	λυπρόν	wretched, poor
ναυκληρία	ναυκληρίας	ναυκληρίᾳ	ναυκληρίαν	ship, voyage
οἰκτρά	οἰκτρᾶς	οἰκτρᾷ	οἰκτράν	pitiable
*παῖς	παιδός	παιδί	παῖδα	child
πατρία	πατρίας	πατρίᾳ	πατρίαν	fatherland
πικρά	πικρᾶς	πικρᾷ	πικράν	sharp, bitter
*σύ	σοῦ	σοί	σέ	you, you, yours
σκάφος	σκάφεος	σκάφει	σκάφος	hull of a ship
φάος (φῶς)	φάεος (φωτός)	φάει (φωτί)	φάος (φῶς)	light, daylight
*φίλοι	φίλων	φίλοις	φίλους	friends

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases give the preposition and the preposition’s object.

καὶ φόβος αὐτὸν ἔχει καὶ διὰ ταῦτα φεύγει.

ὁράω γὰρ ὅτι οὐκ ἔρχῃ πρὸς καιρόν.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

The Greek Olympics

Our first official record of the holding of the Olympic games dates to 776 BCE. The Greeks celebrated the Olympics in the city-state of Olympia in honor of Zeus, king of the gods. They held the Olympics once every four years. At first there were two events, the 200- and 400-meter footrace. Soon added were boxing, horse racing (single horse and four-horse chariot), a long distance race, the pankration (boxing, brawling, judo, wrestling), the pentathlon (discus, javelin, long jump, 200-meter sprint, wrestling), and wrestling. Training took place in the nude at the gymnasium (γυμνός, -ή, -όν naked). Greeks revered their athletes, composing poems in their honor, dedicating statues to them, and giving them cash and free board.

Module 10 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

Verbs

βούλομαι want, prefer; wish, be willing	ἔχω have, hold; (+ adv) be, καλῶς ἔχω I am well; ὧδε ἔχει it is like so; be able + inf.
γίγνομαι (γίνομαι) be, be born, happen, become	λαμβάνω take, receive; capture
δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary to come	λέγω say, tell, speak
δοκέω seem, think; seem best, think best + inf.	ὁράω see
ἔρχομαι come, go	ποιέω do, make, cause; (mid.) consider

Etymology Corner X by Dr. E. Del Chrol

Technical Terms 6, Parts of Speech

Adverbs, Module 4. The first part of speech we have learned is the adverb (ἐπίρρημα), which can modify modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. The word modify to restrain or to restrict is derived from the Latin verb facere (-ify, -fy) to make and the Latin noun modus limit, amount. When you say you are mostly done cleaning your room you are putting a limit on the amount of doneness there is. And why is an adverb an adverb? Because it’s a word that has been added, from the Latin prefix ad- to, to the verb (from the Latin verbum word), just as the Greek word for adverb, ἐπίρρημα, is built from the prefix ἐπι- to and the noun ῥῆμα word, line, verb. In Latin, verbum means word, and this isn’t very useful, except if you take it as THE word. As we will see shortly, a whole sentence in Greek, like in Latin, can be contained in a single verb. This is part of the reason why in grammatical terms verbum or ῥῆμα means verb, the word indicating an action or state of existence in a sentence. Unlike its Latin parent, the meaning of the English word verb maintains a narrow definition. The semantic change of the Latin verbum word to the English verb is called specialization. Contrast the semantic change of the Greek noun δίσκος discus which derived into the general English noun dish and specific noun disc. This type of semantic change is called generalization.

What to Study and Do 10. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized the high frequency verbs ἔχω, ἔρχομαι, and φημί so that you can write out from memory the verb forms of the present indicative and infinitive active of each. In order to remember these ending and verbs for the long term, review them a few times each week. When reviewing, make sure that you can write them out from memory without looking at the answers.

Learning Tip 10: Move Up Bloom’s Pyramid. Benjamin Bloom edited the first volume of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals. In 2001 the revised version of the taxonomy was published. At the base of the revised pyramid is knowledge. Thus, memorization initiates the first step of learning. Understanding comes next and is achieved through applied practice in novel situations. Memorizing the facts of a language (definitions, endings, and vocabulary) and understanding how to interpret these facts in a variety of different contexts (sentences in a setting) are essential to learning. In learning how to interpret these facts you must also learn key concepts. One main concept you are currently learning is that endings create meaning. The right side of your brain is engaged when you learn new information. As you memorize, process, and understand this new information, it moves from the right half of the brain to the left. Thus learning involves both halves of the brain. If you do not memorize, process, and understand this new information, you will not learn it. Once you have done so you are freed and can move up Bloom’s revised taxonomy: knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, evaluation, creativity.