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6: Early Civilizations in the Indian Subcontinent

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    • 6.1: The Sramana Movement
      This page discusses the Sramana movement, an ancient Indian religious tradition that arose between 800-600 BCE, rejecting Vedic ritualism and Brahmin authority. Practicing asceticism for spiritual liberation, it led to Jainism and Buddhism and significantly influenced modern Hinduism, concepts of saṃsāra and moksha, as well as Yogic practices, contributing to diverse Indian religious philosophies and schools.
    • 6.2: Buddhism
      This page discusses Buddhism, a major religion with around 488 million followers that originated in the 5th century BCE from the Sramana movement. It highlights Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, who attained enlightenment and taught the Middle Way and the Noble Eightfold Path to achieve Nirvana. The religion spread significantly from the 3rd century BCE, particularly under Emperor Ashoka, influencing various cultures globally.
    • 6.3: Jainism
      This page provides an overview of Jainism, an ancient Indian religion rooted in the Sramana movement, which emphasizes non-violence, spiritual independence, and karma's role in rebirth. It promotes asceticism and lacks belief in a creator God. Predominantly practiced in India, with worldwide communities, Jainism features two main sects: Digambara and Svetambara. Major observances include Mahavir Jayanti, honoring the last Tirthankara.
    • 6.4: The Achaemenid Empire
      This page discusses the Achaemenid Empire, established around 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great after conquering the Median Empire. It became the first global empire, expanding under leaders like Darius the Great to encompass regions such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Central Asia. By 475 BCE, it governed over 44% of the world's population, a historical peak for empires.
    • 6.5: Government and Trade in the Achaemenid Empire
      This page discusses the Achaemenid Empire's reforms under Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great, including provincial governance through satraps, a postal system, promotion of human rights, currency standardization, and tax improvements. The empire's prosperity was supported by trade and infrastructure like the Royal Road. Significant artifacts, such as the Cyrus Cylinder and Behistun Inscription, highlight their governance and cultural contributions.
    • 6.6: Zoroastrianism
      This page discusses Zoroastrianism, founded by Zoroaster, which worships Ahura Mazda and emphasizes good deeds, free will, and the afterlife. It has influenced major religions and was the state religion of pre-Islamic Iranian empires, declining post-Muslim conquest. Key texts include the Gathas and Yasna. Despite historical challenges, Zoroastrianism endures, especially in India and Iran, with ongoing rituals that honor water and fire as sacred.
    • 6.7: Rise of the Maurya Empire
      This page details the origins and expansion of the Maurya Empire, established in 322 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya after overthrowing the Nanda Dynasty. With Chanakya's guidance, he capitalized on the turmoil post-Alexander the Great, defeating Macedonian satraps and acquiring land from Seleucus I. At its peak, the empire spanned over 5 million square kilometers, making it the largest in the Indian subcontinent, before its decline around 185 BCE due to the emergence of the Shunga Dynasty.
    • 6.8: Expansion of the Maurya Empire
      This page details the expansion of the Maurya Empire under key figures like Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Ashoka the Great. It covers the Seleucid-Mauryan War, which led to a peace treaty and territorial gains for the Maurya. Under Bindusara, the empire expanded southward, while Ashoka's reign was marked by significant growth after conquering Kalinga. Ashoka adopted Buddhism and promoted peace and tolerance through his Edicts, which were inscribed in various languages throughout his empire.
    • 6.9: Centralization in the Maurya Empire
      This page discusses the Mauryan Empire's role in establishing political stability through centralized governance and military strength. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, it featured a unified currency and an extensive bureaucratic system that supported trade and agriculture. Emperor Ashoka is noted for his commitment to peace, maintaining a strong defense while promoting economic growth and trade relations that extended to Greece and Southeast Asia.
    • 6.10: Ashoka’s Conversion
      This page details Ashoka the Great's transformation from a violent leader to a Buddhist emperor after the Kalinga War, driven by remorse for the suffering he caused. He promoted peace and moral governance, constructed stupas, and spread Buddhism beyond India. While some view him as a purely Buddhist monarch, others argue his conversion arose from personal anguish.
    • 6.11: The Indus River Valley Civilization
      This page discusses the Indus Valley Civilization, or Harappan Civilization, which thrived from 3300 to 1300 BCE in areas of modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. It is characterized by advanced urban planning, metallurgy, and craftsmanship, particularly with Carnelian, with key urban centers like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Excavations in the 20th century uncovered its sophisticated engineering and societal structures.
    • 6.12: Decline of the Maurya Empire
      This page details the decline of the Maurya Empire post-Ashoka the Great, characterized by weak leadership and disintegration. Following a coup by General Pusyamitra Sunga in 185 BCE, the Sunga Dynasty emerged, promoting Hinduism while persecuting Buddhism. Simultaneously, Demetrius of the Indo-Greek Kingdom expanded into northwest India, fostering Buddhism. The Indo-Greeks eventually faced invasions and decline, reflecting major political and cultural changes in the region.
    • 6.13: Expansion and Decline of the Kushan Empire
      This page discusses the Kushan Empire, which emerged around 30 CE from the Yuezhi and reached its zenith under Emperor Kanishka. It was pivotal in trade and the spread of Buddhism, while also embracing various faiths influenced by Hellenistic culture. The empire eventually fragmented due to pressures from the Sassanids and Guptas, collapsing around 375 CE. Despite its decline, the Kushan Empire significantly contributed to cultural and commercial exchanges in ancient Eurasia.
    • 6.14: Rise of the Gupta Empire
      This page discusses the Gupta Empire, established by Sri Gupta around 240-280 CE, and its expansion under successors like Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II, who created a coast-to-coast empire by 395 CE. This era is recognized as the Golden Age of India, characterized by significant advancements in literature and science, and the Gupta dynasty's lasting impact on Indian culture and history during its reign from roughly 320-550 CE.
    • 6.15: The Golden Age of India
      This page outlines the Golden Age of India during the Gupta Empire (320-550 CE), marked by prosperity and advancements in science, technology, art, and philosophy. Under Chandragupta II, the Navratnas, a group of nine scholars including Aryabhata and Sushruta, made significant contributions to various fields. Cultural achievements in literature and architecture flourished, impacting East and Southeast Asia, with observations from the Chinese traveler Fa Xian adding to the historical record.
    • 6.16: Decline of the Gupta Empire
      This page outlines the decline of the Gupta Empire following the reign of Chandragupta II, highlighting the challenges faced by his successors, Kumaragupta I and Skandagupta. Key factors in the decline included invasions by the Huna, internal strife, economic difficulties, and resource depletion due to ongoing rebellions and conflicts. By 550 CE, these issues led to the fragmentation of the empire into regional kingdoms, signaling the end of Gupta dominance in India.
    • 6.17: Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization
      This page discusses the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), highlighting its over 1,000 urban centers with advanced planning, waste management systems, and public facilities. Major cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro displayed uniform architecture without monumental buildings, indicating centralized governance. Theories on its political structure vary from a single state to local rulers or classless society. The IVC's achievements in sanitation and urban design reflect a prioritization of hygiene.
    • 6.18: Harappan Culture
      This page outlines the Indus River Valley Civilization (IRV), from 3300-1300 BCE, known for its advanced technology, trade networks, and unique art. They developed a sophisticated system of weights, uniform bricks, and sewers, with maritime trade links to Mesopotamia. The unclear Indus Script indicates an independent writing system, while religious speculations suggest a mother goddess and animal significance.
    • 6.19: Disappearance of the Indus Valley Civilization
      This page discusses the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1800 BCE, attributing it to various theories. One suggests an Aryan invasion, though this is contested due to evidence against battle-related skeletons. Another theory points to climate change, marked by altered monsoons and drying rivers, which reduced agriculture and spurred population migration to smaller communities. By 1700 BCE, these circumstances led to abandoned cities and decreased trade with neighboring cultures.
    • 6.20: The Indo-Aryan Migration and the Vedic Period
      This page discusses the Vedic Period (c. 1750-500 BCE), which followed the Indo-Aryan Migration and is marked by the creation of the Vedas. It is divided into Early (1750-1000 BCE) and Later Vedic (1000-500 BCE) phases; the Early phase focused on pastoralism and oral traditions, while the Later phase transitioned to agriculture, trade, and social complexity. This period significantly influenced the development of Hinduism and shaped the cultural landscape of northern India.
    • 6.21: The Caste System
      This page discusses the ancient Indian caste system originating from the Rig-Veda, categorizing society into four main classes and Untouchables. Patriarchy influenced social roles during the Vedic Period. Although the caste system was abolished in 1950, its effects linger in contemporary Indian society, indicating its deep-rooted cultural impact.
    • 6.22: Sanskrit
      This page discusses the origins and significance of Sanskrit, tracing its development from Vedic Sanskrit around 1700-1200 BCE to Classical Sanskrit standardized by Panini around 500 BCE. It highlights Sanskrit's role in Hinduism, Indian literature, and philosophy while noting its influence on modern Indian languages. The page emphasizes Sanskrit's enduring presence in religious rituals and academic study, underlining its importance in Indian culture and its global scholarly interest.
    • 6.23: The Vedas
      This page discusses the Vedas, the foundational texts of Hinduism created between 1500 and 500 BCE, originally as an oral tradition. Comprising the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas, they contain hymns and rituals and are linked to the origins of the caste system from a deity's sacrifice. Despite modern opposition to the caste system, its historical influence remains, prompting social reform efforts from leaders like B. R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi.
    • 6.24: The Rise of Hinduism
      This page discusses Hinduism's evolution from the Vedic religion through the Indo-Aryan influence and local cultures. The foundational texts, the Vedas and Upanishads, explore deities, rituals, brahman, and moksha. Key developments include movements like Sramana and growth during the Gupta Empire, followed by resilience during Muslim rule and a resurgence during the British Raj. Today, Hinduism is a significant global religion with over a billion followers, primarily in India.

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