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2: Ancient Mesopotamian Civilizations

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    • 2.1: The Sumerians
      This page discusses the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, who thrived from the 27th to 20th century BCE, experiencing cultural advancements and declines. Key developments included advanced writing systems (pictograms to cuneiform), a polytheistic religion tied to city-states, and significant technologies like the wheel and mathematics. Ultimately, their culture blended with that of the Akkadian and Babylonian civilizations.
    • 2.2: The Assyrians
      This page outlines the Assyrian Empire, a prominent Semitic kingdom in the Ancient Near East, existing from approximately 2500 BCE to 605 BCE, with its peak stretching from Cyprus to Persia. It experienced three periods: Old, Middle, and Neo-Assyrian, characterized by changing power and military successes.
    • 2.3: River Valley Civilizations
      This page discusses how early civilizations developed along riverbanks, taking advantage of water for agriculture and transportation, leading to hydraulic empires with centralized control over water resources. Despite their unique traits, these societies shared political hierarchies focused on water management. It also highlights the ongoing global issue of water scarcity affecting billions, resulting from both limited resources and ineffective management.
    • 2.4: The Akkadian Empire
      This page discusses the Akkadian Empire, an ancient Semitic empire founded by Sargon, which united Akkadian and Sumerian speakers in Mesopotamia. It highlights the empire's military conquests, trade, and agricultural advancements, particularly under Sargon and his successor Naram-Sin. The empire's decline around 2154 BCE resulted from Gutian invasions, climate changes, and internal strife, leading to the emergence of Assyria and Babylon.
    • 2.5: Ur
      This page discusses Ur, a significant Sumerian city-state in Mesopotamia founded around 3800 BCE, noted for its wealth and governance. The Ziggurat of Ur, built in the 21st century BCE, was key for administration and religion. Control changed hands among notable leaders like Sargon the Great and Ur-Nammu. Despite a political decline after 500 BCE due to environmental issues, Ur retained its economic importance until it was eventually abandoned.
    • 2.6: Babylon
      This page discusses the rise and fall of the Babylonian Empire, which began around 1894 BCE after the Akkadian Empire's collapse. Hammurabi, its most notable ruler (1792-1750 BCE), centralized the government and created the Code of Hammurabi, a foundational legal framework. However, after his death, the empire weakened due to external invasions and internal conflicts, resulting in its decline and fragmentation under later rulers.
    • 2.7: Hammurabi’s Code
      This page discusses the Code of Hammurabi, established around 1754 BCE in ancient Babylon. It comprises 282 laws emphasizing justice based on social status and introduced key legal concepts such as the presumption of innocence. Major topics included slander, trade, family issues, and contracts, reflecting societal hierarchies among elites, free men, and slaves. Women's rights were restricted, primarily in marriage and divorce.
    • 2.8: Babylonian Culture
      This page highlights Babylonian culture's significant influence across various fields, such as architecture, art, astronomy, medicine, and literature. They excelled in celestial observations, documented in "Enūma Anu Enlil," and introduced medical concepts of diagnosis and prognosis. Literacy was prevalent among both genders, enriching their literary heritage epitomized by the "Epic of Gilgamesh.
    • 2.9: Nebuchadnezzar and the Fall of Babylon
      This page discusses the Second Dynasty of Isin, which arose after the Kassite Dynasty's fall, led by Marduk-kabit-ahheshu and Nebuchadnezzar I. Lasting about 125 years, the dynasty restored native Akkadian rule and saw military successes, particularly against the Elamites, alongside prominent cultural advancements in Babylon.

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