11.2: Republic

Temple of Portunus, Rome

by Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker

The Temple of Portunus is a well preserved late second or early first century BCE rectangular temple in Rome, Italy (see Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) and Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). Its dedication to the God Portunus—a divinity associated with livestock, keys, and harbors—is fitting given the building’s topographical position near the ancient river harbor of the city of Rome.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Temple of Portunus (formerly known as Fortuna Virilis), Rome, Italy, c. 120-80 BCE. Travertine, tufa, and stucco. (Photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Temple of Portunus, Rome, Italy, c. 120-80 BCE. (Photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The city of Rome during its Republican phase was characterized, in part, by monumental architectural dedications made by leading, elite citizens, often in connection with key political or military accomplishments. Temples were a particularly popular choice in this category given their visibility and their utility for public events both sacred and secular.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Temple attributed to Herakles Victor, Forum Boarium, Rome, Italy, late 2nd century BCE. (Photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Temple of Portunus is located adjacent to a circular temple of the Corinthian order, now attributed to Herakles Victor (see Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). The assignation of the Temple of Portunus has been debated by scholars, with some referring to the temple as belonging to Fortuna Virilis (an aspect of the God Fortuna). This is now a minority view. The festival in honor of Portunus (the Portunalia) was celebrated on 17 August.

The Temple’s plan and construction

The temple has a rectangular footprint, measuring roughly 10.5 x 19 meters (36 x 62 Roman feet). Its plan may be referred to as pseudoperipteral, instead of a having a free-standing colonnade, or row of columns, on all four sides, the temple instead only has free-standing columns on its façade with engaged columns on its flanks and rear (see Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)).

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Plan, Temple of Portunus, Rome, Italy, c. 120-80 BCE. (Photo via Smarthistory)

The pronaos (porch) of the temple supports an Ionic colonnade measuring four columns across by two columns deep, with the columns carved from travertine. The Ionic order can be most easily seen in the scroll-shaped (volute) capitals. There are five engaged columns on each side, and four across the back (see Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): Engaged columns, Temple of Portunus, Rome, Italy, c. 120-80 BCE. (Photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Overall the building has a composite structure, with both travertine and tufa being used for the superstructure (tufa is a type of stone consisting of consolidated volcanic ash, and travertine is a form of limestone). A stucco coating would have been applied to the tufa, giving it an appearance closer to that of the travertine.

The temple’s design incorporates elements from several architectural traditions. From the Italic tradition it takes its high podium--one ascends stairs to enter the pronaos, and strong frontality. From Hellenistic architecture comes the Ionic order columns, the engaged pilasters and columns. The use of permanent building materials such as stone, as opposed to the Italic custom of superstructures in wood, terracotta, and mudbrick, also reflects changing practices. The temple itself represents the changing realities and shifting cultural landscape of the Mediterranean world at the close of the first millennium B.C.E.

The Temple of Portunus resides on the Forum Boarium, a public space that was the site of the primary harbor of Rome. While the temple of Portunus is a bit smaller than other temples in the Forum Boarium and the adjacent Forum Holitorium, it fits into a general typology of Late Republican temple building.

Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): Temple of the Sibyl, Tivoli, Italy, c. 150-125 BCE. (Photo: LPLT, CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Temple of Portunus finds perhaps its closest contemporary parallel in the Temple of the Sibyl at Tibur, modern Tivoli, which dates c. 150-125 BCE (see Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)). The temple type embodied by the Temple of Portunus may also be found in Iulio-Claudian temple buildings such as the Maison Carrée at Nîmes in southern France.

Preservation and current state

Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\): Andrea Palladio, Temple of Fortuna Virilis, engraving from The Four Books of Architecture, London, Isaac Ware, 1738. (Photo via Smarthistory)

The Temple of Portunus is obviously in an excellent state of preservation. In 872 CE the ancient temple was re-dedicated as a Christian shrine sacred to Santa Maria Egyziaca (Saint Mary of Egypt), leading to the preservation of the structure. The architecture has inspired many artists and architects over the centuries, including Andrea Palladio who studied the structure in the sixteenth century (see Palladio's engraving of the building in Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)).

Neo-Classical architects were inspired by the form of the Temple of Portunus and it led to the construction of the Temple of Harmony, a folly in Somerset, England, dating to 1767 (see Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)).

Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\): The Temple of Harmony, Halswell House, Somserset, England, 1767. (Photo: Stronoch, CC0 1.0)

The Temple of Portunus is important not only for its well preserved architecture and the inspiration that architecture has fostered, but also as a reminder of what the built landscape of Rome was once like—dotted with temples large and small that became foci of a great deal of activity in the life of the city. Those temples that survive are reminders of that vibrancy as well as of the architectural traditions of the Romans themselves.

Backstory

By Dr. Naraelle Hohensee

The Temple of Portunus was put on the World Monuments Watch list in 2006. Overseen by the World Monuments Fund, this list highlights “cultural heritage sites around the world that are at risk from the forces of nature or the impact of social, political, and economic change,” providing them with “an opportunity to attract visibility, raise public awareness, foster local engagement in their protection, leverage new resources for conservation, advance innovation, and demonstrate effective solutions.”

Together with the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma and grants from private funders, the World Monuments Fund sponsored a restoration of the Temple of Portunus beginning in 2000. The temple had been partially restored and conservation measures put in place in the 1920s, but the activities undertaken in the last two decades utilized the latest technologies to complete a full restoration of the interior and exterior of the building. This included the cleaning and conservation of the frescoes, replacement of the roof (incorporating ancient roof tiles), anti-seismic measures, and the cleaning and restoration of the pediment, columns, and exterior walls. The newly-restored temple opened to the public in 2014.

The Temple of Portunus is one of the best-preserved examples of Roman Republican architecture, and efforts like those of the World Monuments Fund are ensuring that it continues to survive intact.

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Maison Carrée

by Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker

This well-preserved building in modern-day France is a textbook example of a Vitruvian temple.

Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\): Maison Carrée, Colonia Nemausus (modern Nîmes, France), c. 4-7 CE. (Photo: Danichou, public domain)

The so-called Maison Carrée or “square house” is an ancient Roman temple located in Nîmes in southern France (see Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\)). Nîmes was founded as a Roman colony (Colonia Nemausus) during the first century BCE. The Maison Carrée is an extremely well preserved ancient Roman building and represents a nearly textbook example of a Roman temple as described by the architectural writer Vitruvius.

Design and Plan

Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\): Plan and elevation of the Maison Carrée, c. 4-7 CE. (Photo: Penn State University Library, CC BY-NC 2.0) Details in the plan and elevation illustrate some of Maison Carrée's key features, such as the deep porch, frontal orientation, and high podium.

The frontal temple is a classic example of the Tuscan style temple as described by Vitruvius, who wrote On Architecture in the first century BCE. This means that the building has a single cella or cult room, a deep porch, a frontal, axial orientation, and sits atop a high podium (see Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\)). The podium of the Maison Carrée rises to a height of 2.85 meters; the footprint of the temple measures 26.42 by 13.54 meters at the base.

The building is executed in the Corinthian order, which is easily identified by the acanthus leaf motifs on the capital (see Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\)), and is hexastyle in its plan meaning it has six columns across the façade; twenty engaged columns line the flanks, yielding a pseudoperipteral arrangement—the front columns are free-standing but the columns on the sides and back are engaged, that is, attached to the wall.

Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\): Photograph of the right front corner of the Maison Carrée, labeling three instances of egg-and-dart trim above the architrave and the acanthus leaf motif on the Corinthian capitals. (Photo via Smarthistory)

The temple has a very deep pronaos, or porch. The superstructure is decorated with egg-and-dart motifs (see Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\)), with the architrave divided into three zones. The deep porch which puts an emphasis on the temple front and the pseudoperipteral arrangement clearly differentiate this from an ancient Greek temple.

Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\): Examples of Greek (upper illustration) and Campana (lower illustration) egg-and-dart motifs. (Image: Handbook of Ornament, public domain)

The temple once carried a dedicatory inscription that was removed in the Middle Ages. Following the reconstruction of the inscription in 1758, scholars believe that the dedication of the building honored Augustus’ grandsons and intended heirs, Caius and Lucius Caesar. The dedicatory inscription read, in translation, “To Gaius Caesar, son of Augustus, Consul; to Lucius Caesar, son of Augustus, Consul designate; to the princes of youth” (CIL XII, 3156). While not especially common within Italy during the time of the Iulio-Claudians, the worship of the emperor and the imperial family was more commonplace in the provinces of the Roman empire.

Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\): Temple of Augustus and Livia, Vienne, France, late first century BCE. (Photo: Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0)

The late first century BCE Temple of Augustus and Livia in located in Vienne, France (an ancient settlement of the Allobroges that received a Roman colony) is very similar in plan to the Maison Carrée (see Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\)). This temple was originally dedicated to Augustus alone, but in 41 CE the emperor Claudius re-dedicated the building to include Livia, his grandmother (and the wife of Augustus). Taken together these temples show us not only well preserved examples of early Imperial architecture but they also show the degree to which local elites would invest in monumental construction in order to celebrate the emperor and his family members. Just as honorific temples at Rome were sponsored by elites, construction in the provinces also often relied on elite members of the community to fill the role of artistic patron.

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Head of a Roman Patrician

by Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker

Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\): Head of a Roman Patrician from Otricoli, c. 75-50 BCE. Marble, Palazzo Torlonia, Rome, Italy. (Photo via Smarthistory)

Seemingly wrinkled and toothless, with sagging jowls, the face of a Roman aristocrat stares at us across the ages. In the aesthetic parlance of the Late Roman Republic, the physical traits of this portrait image are meant to convey seriousness of mind (gravitas) and the virtue (virtus) of a public career by demonstrating the way in which the subject literally wears the marks of his endeavors. While this representational strategy might seem unusual in the post-modern world, in the waning days of the Roman Republic it was an effective means of competing in an ever more complex socio-political arena.

The portrait

The portrait head featured in Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\), now housed in the Palazzo Torlonia in Rome, Italy, comes from Otricoli (ancient Ocriculum) and dates to the middle of the first century BCE. The name of the individual depicted is now unknown, but the portrait is a powerful representation of a male aristocrat with a hooked nose and strong cheekbones. The figure is frontal without any hint of dynamism or emotion—this sets the portrait apart from some of its near contemporaries. The portrait head is characterized by deep wrinkles, a furrowed brow, and generally an appearance of sagging, sunken skin—all indicative of the veristic style of Roman portraiture.

Verism

Verism can be defined as a sort of hyperrealism in sculpture where the naturally occurring features of the subject are exaggerated, often to the point of absurdity. In the case of Roman Republican portraiture, middle age males adopt veristic tendencies in their portraiture to such an extent that they appear to be extremely aged and care worn. This stylistic tendency is influenced both by the tradition of ancestral imagines as well as a deep-seated respect for family, tradition, and ancestry. The imagines were essentially death masks of notable ancestors that were kept and displayed by the family. In the case of aristocratic families these wax masks were used at subsequent funerals so that an actor might portray the deceased ancestors in a sort of familial parade (Polybius History 6.53.54). The ancestor cult, in turn, influenced a deep connection to family. For Late Republican politicians without any famous ancestors (a group famously known as ‘new men’ or ‘homines novi’) the need was even more acute—and verism rode to the rescue. The adoption of such an austere and wizened visage was a tactic to lend familial gravitas to families who had none—and thus (hopefully) increase the chances of the aristocrat’s success in both politics and business. This jockeying for position very much characterized the scene at Rome in the waning days of the Roman Republic and the Otricoli head is a reminder that one’s public image played a major role in what was a turbulent time in Roman history.

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Portraiture of the Roman Republic

By Boundless Art History

Roman portraiture during the Republic is identified by its considerable realism, known as veristic portraiture. Verism refers to a hyper-realistic portrayal of the subject’s facial characteristics. The style originated from Hellenistic Greece; however, its use in the Roman Republic is due to Roman values , customs, and political life.

Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\): Portrait of a Roman General, from the Sanctuary of Hercules, Tivoli, Italy, ca. 75-50 BCE. Marble, 6’ 2” high. Museo Nazionale Romano-Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome, Italy. (Photo: Miguel Hermoso Cuesta, CC BY-SA 4.0)

As with other forms of Roman art, portraiture borrowed certain details from Greek art but adapted these to their own needs. Veristic images often show their male subjects with receding hairlines, deep winkles, and even with warts. While the faces of the portraits often display incredible detail and likeness, the subjects’ bodies are idealized and do not correspond to the age shown in the face.

This photo in Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\) shows the statue, Portrait of a Roman General. He wears a toga that shows his bare chest and idealized abdominal muscles. He stands with one leg bent and hidden under the toga.

Figure \(\PageIndex{16}\) shows the Bust of an Old Man. His face is realistic and life like with deep wrinkles in his forehead, crow’s feet wrinkles around his eyes, and deep lines around his mouth.

Figure \(\PageIndex{16}\): Head of old man in a coverlet. Marble. Mid-1st century BCE. Vatican Museums, Rome, Italy. (Photo: shakko, CC BY-SA 3.0)

The popularity and usefulness of verism appears to derive from the need to have a recognizable image. Veristic portrait busts provided a means of reminding people of distinguished ancestors or of displaying one’s power, wisdom, experience, and authority. Statues were often erected of generals and elected officials in public forums—and a veristic image ensured that a passerby would recognize the person when they actually saw them.

The Late Republic

The use of veristic portraiture began to diminish in the first century BCE. During this time, civil wars threatened the empire, and individual men began to gain more power. The portraits of Pompey the Great and Julius Caesar, two political rivals who were also the most powerful generals in the Republic, began to change the style of the portraits and their use.

The portraits of Pompey are not fully idealized, nor were they created in the same veristic style of Republican senators (see Figure 11.2.17). Pompey borrowed a specific parting and curl of his hair from Alexander the Great . This similarity served to link Pompey visually with the likeness of Alexander and to remind people that he possessed similar characteristics and qualities.

Figure \(\PageIndex{17}\): Pompey the Great. Marble, 1st century BCE. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, Denmark. (Photo: Gunnar Bach Pedersen, public domain)

The portraits of Julius Caesar are more veristic than those of Pompey. Despite staying closer to stylistic convention, Caesar was the first man to mint coins with his own likeness printed on them. In the decades prior to this, it had become increasingly common to place an illustrious ancestor on a coin, but putting a living person—especially oneself—on a coin departed from Roman propriety (see Figure 11.2.18). By circulating coins issued with his image, Caesar directly showed the people that they were indebted to him for their own prosperity and therefore should support his political pursuits.

Figure \(\PageIndex{18}\): Julius Caesar portrait: A portrait of Julius Caesar on a denarius. On the reverse side stands Venus Victix holding a winged Victory. (Photo: Classical Numismatic Group, CC BY-SA 2.5)

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Articles in this section:

• Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker, "Temple of Portunus, Rome," in Smarthistory, January 21, 2021. (CC BY-NC-SA)
• Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker, "Maison Carrée," in Smarthistory, March 8, 2016. (CC BY-NC-SA)
• Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker, "Head of a Roman Patrician," in Smarthistory, August 8, 2015. (CC BY-NC-SA)
• Boundless Art History, “The Republic.” (CC BY SA)