12.4: Religious Conflict Erupts in the Middle East

The Rise of Saddam Hussein 

The rise of religious leaders to political prominence created a crisis in the Middle East during the 1980s. In particular, a major war was fought between the Sunni government in Iraq and the Shiite government in Iran.  During the era of the Ottoman Empire, Sunni Arabs governed Iraq. They were the top officials in government and in the military. However, the majority of Iraqis were Shiite Arabs. The Pan-Arabist Ba’th Party was established in Iraq in 1949 which represented this Sunni Arab minority. The Ba’th Sunni nationalist Saddam Hussein became dictator in July 1979. However, the Da‘wa Party supported the Shiites and aimed at the eventual establishment of an Islamic state.  Similar to Iran, Iraq was dependent upon oil exports. By 1979, oil production constituted almost 63 percent of Iraq’s gross domestic product.

Tensions between Iran and Iraq deteriorated with Hussein as the dictator of Iraq and the rise of Khomeini in Iran. Iraq accused Iran of supporting Shi‘a opposition movements in the region, including in Iraq. The border between the two countries had been stable since the Zohab Treaty was made between the Safavids and the Ottomans in 1639. However, there was disagreement over the precise position of the border at its southernmost point, where the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates flowed into the Persian Gulf along the waterway known as the Shatt al-Arab. The area was important because of its proximity to both countries’ oilfields. Also, Iran and Iraq used the waterway for the passage of oil tankers carrying oil away for export.  Saddam Hussein had claimed the whole waterway up to the Iranian shore.

The Iran-Iraq War

The Iran-Iraq War began when Iraq attacked Iran in 1980. Saddam Hussein saw an opportunity to shore up his power in Iraq by taking over the Shatt al-Arab and possibly Iran’s Arab-majority province of Khuzestan rich with oil fields. He also believed he could score an easy victory while Iran was unstable after the abdication of the Shah.  Additionally, Hussein was looking to position himself as the new Pan-Arabist champion of all Arabs in the Middle East. For the most part, Iran’s Shiite theocracy was seen as a threat by its Arab neighbors, especially by the conservative Sunni regime in Saudi Arabia.

However, Hussein did not score a quick victory. The Iranian air force maintained air superiority because it was better trained and equipped. The Iranian pilots were from the Shah era and were well-trained by the US military.  In fact, the Iraqi attack only strengthened Khomeini’s rule in Iran and the Iranians rallied around their government.  The Iran–Iraq War dragged on as a stalemate for about eight years because each country could rely on its oil supplies to fund its militaries.  Hussein also received large loans from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman, because he was seen as a defender of all Sunni Arabs against the Iranian Revolution.  The Saudis in particular were concerned about Iranian influence on the Shi‘a minority in the eastern part of their country, and Khomeini regularly attacked the Saudi monarchy in his speeches. The death toll has been estimated as 800,000 Iranians and up to 500,000 Iraqis.  A ceasefire was agreed upon in 1988, but the boundary along the Shatt remained unresolved.

For the most part, Hussein had gained nothing in the war but debt and demands for autonomy by non-Arab ethnic Kurds in northern Iraq. He responded with chemical attacks on civilian Kurdish populations. In 1990, the Iraqi dictator then decided to incorporate Kuwait into his nation, claiming that it had historically been part of Mesopotamia (which was plausible, given the absurd way the British had drawn national boundaries after World War I). The United Nations, led by the U.S., pushed Hussein out of Kuwait. Not even the Saudis wanted the Iraqi dictator to take the tiny kingdom, which despite its size had as much oil as Iraq. Although it decimated Hussein’s retreating army on the infamous “Highway of Death”, the coalition stopped short of toppling Hussein himself, which would have consequences over the next two decades.

The Iran-Contra Scandal

Overall, the West aided Iraq during this war, but the USA in a secret deal provided aid to Iran. In this agreement, Israel was to provide weapons and spare parts to Iran.  Israel would then be paid by Iran and be resupplied by the US.  Israel was then to forward the proceeds of the sales to the Contra rebels in Nicaragua who were fighting a socialist government there.  Iran for its part was to use its influence to bring about the release of American hostages being held by pro-Iranian groups in Lebanon. Robert McFarlane, the national security advisor, took the lead in this deal.  Reagan approved the first shipment of arms, 100 TOW anti-tank missiles to Israel.  After the second shipment, the first American hostage was released.  There were then more arms shipments including powerful HAWK ground-to-air missiles. 

This deal was made public when an Iranian named Mehdi Hashemi leaked information about this deal to a Lebanese newspaper, Al-Shiraa, which published the details on 3 November 1986. This deal was a major scandal for the Reagan administration for many reasons. It was illegal, because the US Congress had forbidden the Reagan administration to fund the Contras.  Additionally, President Reagan stated that no ransom should be paid for hostages and that the US government should not even negotiate with hostage-takers. Finally, the Reagan administration had a firm policy that no arms should be sent to Iran and applied pressure to prevent other countries from selling arms to Iran.  This deal was also an embarrassment for the Iranian government.  Not only were they dealing with the USA but also with Israel.  In contrast, Israel claimed that this deal was good because it improved their relations with Iran.  For the most part, both the USA and Israel wanted to have better relations with Iran, because they believed more moderate forces would take over once Khomeini had died.

Review Questions  

• What were the causes of the Iran-Iraq War?
• Why did most countries support Iraq?