3.6: Society and Culture of Tokugawa Japan

The "Golden Age" of Japan

Like the Indian subcontinent, Japan had also been a fractured region, made up of a number of different clans, each of whom declared their right to rule, leading to decades of civil wars between these clans.  Unlike India, however, the fight was for supremacy and the right to rule.  In the early seventeenth century, one family clan, the Tokugawa, emerged triumphant and set about a unification of Japanese territory, described in the previous chapter.  The Tokugawa time period is also known for its distinct architecture and art style, which emphasized both function and beautiful form, as well as more opportunities for women. Like the Muslim territories of the Near East, the Far East of Japan also had a “power behind the throne,” which included the ruler’s mother as well as his wife, although in the Japanese tradition of ancestral veneration, explained later in this section, the mother held sway over the household, even in the ruling family.

Figure 3.6.1 "Edo Palace, Tokugawa Japan," Unknown Author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Art and Architecture

In the art world, this time period is known as the Edo period of art, so called after the original name of the city of Tokyo.  Much of the art produced during this time appeared similar to Figure 3.6.1; colorful and bright.  The iconic piece “The Great Wave Off of Kanagawa” typifies the form and structure of many paintings out of Tokugawa Japan. This, along with other images, gave the impression of a “floating world”, known as ukiyo-e; a place almost heaven-like, with wealth and prosperity distributed throughout the kingdom and everyone happy. These images would show a civilization that, by the mid-1630s until the early 1850s, had become closed off to much of the rest of the world but still needed to project evidence of its position as a strong culture with an enlightened population who relied on their own countryfolk to maintain that strength.  

Architecture would play a major role in this perception; like much of the rest of Eurasia, Japanese authorities saw the need to build large structures that showcased the time and effort a prosperous society would have to work on a creation of this magnitude. Like China and the creation of Beijing, Japan would make what is modern-day Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka hubs of intellect and artistry. The Tokugawa family used this opportunity to create grand structures indicative of their wealth and power, much like other “golden” civilizations along the Eurasian continents.  Another iconic element of Tokugawa Japan was the elaborate and elegant curving rooflines which started with the Edo Palace in modern-day Tokyo.  Although created prior to the Tokugawa regime rule by the previous rulers, the Edo clan, the Shogunate used it as a base of power during the height of their rule. It would remain the “Edo Castle” (see Figure 3.6.2) until the end of the Tokugawa rule and the rise of the Meiji period, around 1868, discussed in a later chapter.

Figure 3.6.2 "Keep of Edo Castle," D Ramey Logan, is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

Literature would become more “provincial;” that is, not influenced by other concepts or ideas coming in from other parts of the world.  During this period, the hokku poem, renamed the haiku in the nineteenth century, was invented. Intended to be comedic verses designed to show the author’s creativity and wit in only seventeen syllables within three lines in a five-syllable, seven-syllable, and five-syllable again format, this form of poetry had been adapted from earlier, more serious types of literature, where what we know as the haiku opened up longer works. A poet named Matsunaga Teitoku brought more sobriety to this poetry form, allowing a more dignified medium to take place amongst his followers, bringing us to the haiku we know today.

Roles of Women

Prior to the rise of the Tokugawa clan, women who weren’t in the upper classes of the ruling families had limited choices. They often worked at the feudal labor prevalent in earlier time periods, whether in the country or in a more urban area and were often victims of the violent clashes between families and clans.  After the start of the Edo period, more opportunities arose, including special sections of major cities set aside for prostitution, or the geisha houses.  Although frowned on by Confucian morality, these areas that westerners might refer to as “red light” districts became an important part of Japanese culture. In a place with strict social hierarchy, which the Tokugawa clan maintained, the geisha house provided a much-needed service, as the women who served there, particularly the high-ranking houses, offered more than just sex; they became skilled at a variety of arts, including music on various instruments, writing and calligraphy, painting, and one of the most important skills, being educated enough to speak with men on a variety of topics, including economic, political, cultural, and social issues. Much like the Italian courtesan of the European Renaissance, the geisha provided a place of beauty and wealth upon a “floating world,” all part of the emphasis on ukiyo-e art and artistry emphasized throughout the Edo period. This didn’t necessarily mean that the women in those roles desired to be there. Like many cultures, roles like this were a combination of willing participants who prepared themselves for the opportunity and those that were either born or sold into these positions against their will. However, it’s important to note that these women occupied these spaces during this period, contributing to the development of the overall society and culture.

This period also saw the rise of a middle merchant class, which enabled more women to participate in skilled trade. A rise in art and architecture means a greater need for skilled tradesmen and artists to create these works, which, along with less warfare and survival issues, meant that people could command more for their services.  The subsequent closure of Japanese markets to outside influence during this time would also require people to utilize local resources and raw materials and form those raw materials into supplies to be used by the general population in addition to the ruling family.  This gave opportunities for women to participate in these trades as well, providing the ability to learn new skills, particularly if the male members of her family died or were unable to continue in the trade.  

The Tokugawa dynasty saw an increase in women’s visibility beyond these lower and middle-class roles, particularly in the noble houses forced to serve the ruler in his wife’s or mother’s household. Poetry was a distinct pastime many noblewomen favored, and due to the money they commanded, as well as the increased use of the printing press, many were able to publish their poems for public consumption. Although the early Tokugawa period showcased more male authors who spoke of love with lower-class women and prostitutes, around the middle of the seventeenth century, some started to use poetry and literature to describe the lives of middle and upper-class women, something that hadn’t been explored until this point. Ihara Saikaku, a well-known novelist during the Edo period, is credited with being one of the first to publish stories on these topics, in his story collection titled “Five Women Who Loved Love.” 

Several women became well-known for their poetry specifically during this period. The most well-known female haiku author, Fukuda Chiyo-ni, produced a number of works throughout the mid-Edo period of the early eighteenth century.  One of the very few female haiku poets at that time, she opened the door for a number of other women poets who would become more well-known as Japan reopened to Western culture and influence during the Meiji period. Much of women’s poetry mimicked the poetry and literature written by men, which included themes of love, heartbreak, and both tragic and comedic moments of life. 

Marriage in Tokugawa Japan, particularly among the nobility, was a complicated issue.  Like other Asian cultures such as China, Japan took part in ancestor worship, where family lineage played a large role in society and culture.  A married couple did not necessarily set up their own household together; often, the woman would move into her husband’s home, where she would be in charge of taking care of her in-laws, and where the mother-in-law ruled the home, many times with an iron fist.  This is where the role of geisha also contributed; noblewomen were desired for breeding purposes, to perpetuate a certain noble bloodline, and to learn to take care of the home, particularly if it was a great estate.  If a nobleman or wealthy tradesman wished for sweet - and intelligent - female conversation, as well as writing, poetry, music, and witty comedy, they visited a geisha, who often would look to gain sponsorship from a wealthy patron.  While the Tokugawa period didn’t see as much of this practice as later time periods, it would set the foundation for it.  

Review Questions

• What role might art and architecture play in the geopolitical positioning of civilizations against or toward one another, such as Tokugawa Japan and Ming or Qing China?  How might this positioning affect that civilization's participation in the world market?
• How does the actual and/or perceived status of women, slaves, eunuchs, and other marginalized populations affect their place within the society of a civilization?  How might this status affect that civilization's perception by other cultures and civilizations?