By the end of this module you will be able to:
- Describe the form, content, and context of key works of Late Etruscan Period
- Define critical terms related to the Late Etruscan Period
- Discuss the different forms of bronze objects produced by the Etruscans in the Classical period and Hellenistic late phase
- Describe the changes that appeared in Etruscan art during the Roman period
Etruscan Bronze Sculptures
During its Classical period, from 480 to 300 BCE, Etruscan art was known for its hollow cast bronze sculptures and smaller utilitarian objects. Objects such as mirrors and cistae were engraved or incised with rich imagery that was made noticeable by a white substance inserted into the outlines and contour lines. The Etruscan sculptures of human subjects ranging from naturalistic to exaggerated, almost modernist, forms, and the mythical creatures from the Greek and Eastern traditions found their way into their subject matter. In total, Etruscan sculpture incorporates a variety of cultural styles and motifs, including Orientalizing, Archaic, and Classical. Very few Etruscan bronze sculptures survived because they were melted down in the following centuries to be used for other purposes.
Lost-Wax Casting
Also known by its French name cire perdue, lost-wax casting is the oldest method of producing metal sculptures. Although any material that can be liquified and subsequently solidified can be cast, metal is the most common. Of all metals, bronze is the most commonly cast. In lost-wax casting, the sculptor begins by making a clay mould of the intended sculpture, coats it in wax, and applies an outer layer of plaster to it, fastening metal rods to hold the shell in place and wax rods to vent the mould. Intense heat is then applied, causing the wax to melt and flow out of the mould. This step leaves open channels into which molten metal is poured. When the metal has cooled and hardened, the mould is broken, the sculpture is removed, and the holes left from the pins and rods are filled and smoothed. Finally, the sculpture is polished and ready for display. Because the mould must be destroyed, sculptors use the lost-wax method to produce one-of-a-kind sculptures.
Chimera of Arezzo
The bronze statue of the Chimera, discovered in the city of Arezzo in 1553, has recently been judged as a forgery. The reasoning rests more on the fact that there are no comparable existing Etruscan sculptures than on any scientific testing. An inscription on the right foreleg marks the bronze as a votive offering to the supreme Etruscan god, Tinia (comparable to Roman Jupiter). The sculpture depicts the Chimera, a mythical beast with the body and head of a lion, a serpent for a tail, and with a goat’s head in the middle of its back. The beast plagued the area of Lycia until it was slain by the hero Bellerophon. The serpent tail was not discovered with the statue; the current tail is an eighteenth-century restoration. The bronze statue demonstrates Etruscan artistic techniques and how the liveliness seen in Etruscan terra cotta sculpture is transmitted into the bronze medium. The figure is well modelled and expressive—from its tense muscles, ready pose, and roaring face of the lion and goat. The beast’s ribs are clearly visible and a wound on its rump bleeds. The lion’s posture—he crouches and looks up—suggests that there may have been an additional figure of Bellerophon to create a votive group. The figure’s face and mane are stylized and the patterning is reminiscent of Near Eastern depictions of lions.
Ombra Della Sera
Produced in the metal-rich town of Velathri (later Volterra), the Ombra Della Sera (Italian for Evening Shadow) represents a male nude that is nearly two feet high. Archaeologists estimate its date of production to the third century BCE. In ancient times, Volterra bronze workers were known for their ability to fuse copper ores with tin to form bronze. The body of the sculpture is very elongated, while the scale of its head is naturalistic. The title Ombra Della Sera was applied to the sculpture centuries later by a poet who likened its exaggerated form to shadows cast by the setting sun. These unusual proportions lead some experts to believe that the sculpture was intended as a votive offering.
Mars of Todi
The so-called Mars of Todi (late fifth-early fourth century BCE) is a nearly life-size bronze warrior produced as a votive offering, possibly to Laran, the Etruscan god of war. The figure probably held a patera (libation bowl) in his extended right hand, and a spear in the left. His helmet is missing, but his body armour is one of the best surviving examples that show how plate armour from the period appeared. Unlike the Ombra Della Sera, the Mars of Todi is very naturalistic, complete with a dynamic contrapposto pose and inlaid eyes. A dedication that combines the Etruscan alphabet and Latin dialect from Umbria (central Italy) is inscribed on the skirt of the breastplate. It translates as “Ahal Trutitis gave [this as a] gift.” Interestingly, the name of the donor was Celtic in origin, denoting the cosmopolitan nature of the region in ancient times.
Bronze Objects
The Etruscans also used bronze to create small objects, including storage jars, or cistae, and mirrors. Etruscan bronze mirrors were used by women and often deposited as grave goods. These mirrors were highly burnished on one side to reflect an image, and on the other side were decorated with engraved or low-relief casted scenes. The images depicted were often scenes from Greek mythology, that demonstrate the importation of Greek culture and mythology. Many of these mirrors were inscribed with the deceased’s name and ritual blessings.
![This is a photo of an Etruscan bronze mirror with an engraving of the Judgment of Paris, which depicts a contest between the three most beautiful goddesses of Olympos--Aphrodite, Hera and Athena. They compete for a golden apple.](https://human.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/84337/ent-of-paris-louvre-bj1734.jpeg?revision=1)
Cistae were also often inscribed and were also decorated with engravings and added bronze elements, such as feet, chains, and decorative handle lids. The cistae were small boxes with lids, much like a pyxis, that was made from bronze and was usually cylindrical. The handles of the lids were often figures, such as a man or a sphinx, or figural groups. Like the mirrors, the engraved scenes represented images from mythology, but some images also depict scenes from Etruscan history.
![This is a photo of a cista ( a bronze circular container with a lid used to store goods). The handles are nude male statuettes.The cista is engraved with battle scenes between the Etruscans and the Gauls and decorated with a criss-crossed chains.](https://human.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/84338/nd-etruscans-walters-54133.jpeg?revision=1)