17: Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation
- Serve as a reference for grammar, usage, and punctuation.
Why is it important to know about grammar, usage, and punctuation?
Being correct goes beyond the basic grammar that language needs in order to function. Being correct means knowing the rules that a given culture has established to judge the language of individuals. Think about it: many years ago, ain’t was not considered incorrect. How might you react to someone using that word today? We speak of this as usage. There are far more usage rules than grammar rules, and they are far more difficult to master. Many of them you just have to learn, and after you learn them, you have to use them over and over and over in order to incorporate them into your language.
It is important to remember that correctness is relative to a particular situation and the “rules” for usage will always be changing. Sometimes, it can be tough to keep up with all that change!
This is why a native speaker of English will find the following pages in Grammar Essentials helpful. And, if you are not a native speaker of English, learning or reviewing things like parts of speech, punctuation, and common errors can be helpful in your efforts to learn and feel comfortable with the English language.
By using a little humor, we hope this introduction into grammar and punctuation (using zombies, memes , and funny stories) will be a little less painful than when you were in junior high and had to do things like memorize prepositions or diagram sentences.
Punctuation
Maybe you have heard the story about how punctuation saves lives. Clearly, there is a difference between
Correct: Let's eat, Grandma!
and
Incorrect : Let's eat Grandma!
In addition to saving lives, using punctuation properly will help your writing be clean and clear and help you build your credibility as a writer. The following pages will provide you with an overview of the basic rules regarding punctuation and will give you a chance to practice using the information you have learned.
Source: Exclelsior College OWL
Apostrophes
When you send a text message, you probably do not bother with apostrophes right? It makes sense that we might not worry about properly punctuating possessives and contractions in a text message, but it’s very important to remember that we do need to use apostrophes correctly in other writing situations.
Academics frequently debate about whether or not text messaging is going to kill the poor apostrophe. In his essay “Dear Apostrophe: C Ya,” Rob Jenkins (2012) writes, “[O]ne of my professors, talking about the way language evolves over time, predicted that the next evolutionary stage would involve common punctuation marks. Specifically, he said, the apostrophe would eventually cease to exist” (para. 1).
This may be true, but the apostrophe is not dead yet!
So if you have been text messaging so long that you forgot what the apostrophe is for, the following pages should be helpful.
Using Apostrophes to Make Words Possessive
Beginning writers sometimes mistakenly add apostrophes to make words plural, but this is not how the apostrophe is used.
Rule: The apostrophe is used to show possession or ownership.
Sam’s game plan
my friend’s DVD
Beth’s zombie
Note: If you just mean to make a word plural, you should not add an apostrophe. For example,
Incorrect: The student’s planned to buy their books but played Xbox instead.
Here, you would not use an apostrophe because no ownership is being established. You can double-check this example and see that this use of the apostrophe would not pass the “of” test.
The planned of the students just does not make sense.
The red sentence above would not pass the test and instead should read as follows:
Correct: The students planned to buy their books but played Xbox instead.
For those times when you are determining whether an apostrophe is needed, use this test - we call it the “ of ” test. In other words, can you reword the sentence and substitute the apostrophe with “of”?
| Using an apostrophe | |
| my friend’s DVD | the DVD of my friend |
| Beth’s zombie plan | the zombie plan of Beth |
| James’s canned goods* | the canned goods of James |
Plural Possessives
Making plural words possessive can be confusing at times because we so often add an s to a noun to make it plural. All of those s ’s can be a little overwhelming.But the rules are pretty clear on this issue:
Rule : To make plural nouns that do not end in s possessive, add ’s . To make plural nouns that end in s possessive, add just the ’ .
my cats’ treasures
our zombie fortresses’ weaknesses
Using Apostrophes to Create Contractions
Rule: Apostrophes are also used in contractions where the apostrophe takes the place of letters that are omitted when you join two words. Here are some examples:
I am = I’m
you are = you’re
it is = it’s
did not = didn’t
Source: Excelsior College OWL
Omitted Numbers
Rule : You can also use an apostrophe to stand in for omitted numbers.
I was born in ’75, and I’m feeling old.
Note: Although there are plenty of writing situations where contractions are appropriate, contractions are too informal for most of the formal papers you write for college and should be avoided in those situations.
Tips from the Professor
While most of the rules regarding apostrophes are pretty straightforward, there are following situations related to apostrophes seem to give people trouble:
- It’s is a contraction for it is . If you need to make it possessive, as in its creepy eyes , you shouldn’t use an apostrophe. Because of the contraction for it is, the possessive its goes against the normal rules.
- Sometimes, you’ll see writers use an apostrophe when referring to decades like the 1980’s . However, it’s standard to write the 1980s without the apostrophe.
- To make a compound word such as mother-in-law possessive, just add an ’s to the last word. For example : My mother-in-law’s weekly phone calls make me really nervous.
- If you need to show joint possession, only the last word should be made possessive, as illustrated in this example : Alex and Megan’s zombie-proof fence is an admirable e xample of joint possession.
Brackets
You may not use brackets often, but they can become helpful punctuation in academic writing as you integrate quotes into your essays. Brackets let your readers know you have made changes to the quote in some way.
Rule : You should use brackets when you have to alter text within a quote to make something clear for your readers. The material inside the brackets is your addition. Be careful though! You may not change the meaning of the quote.
To understand how to use brackets, let's start with the original quote:
Original Quotation: “More than a decade ago, losses were already mounting to five billion dollars annually.”
The examples below demonstrate the three ways to use brackets in a quotation:
Legal scholar Jay Kesan notes that “a decade ago, losses [from employees’ computer crimes] were already mounting to five billion dollars annually” (2010).
Since your audience did not read the article, they won't understand which losses Jay Kesan is referring to in this quote. Therefore, you should use brackets to help your audience understand the context of the quotation.
Legal scholar Jay Kesan notes that “a decad [ sic ] ago, losses were already mounting to five billion dollars annually” (2010).
As tempting. as it may be, you may not change anything within a quotation. Because you do not want your audience to think you made a mistake in spelling, you should use the term [sic] after a misspelled word within a quotation.
Emphasize a point that was not emphasized in the original quotation
Legal scholar Jay Kesan notes that “a decade ago, losses were already mounting to five billion dollars annually” [emphasis mine] (2010).
Colons
Many writers think the colon is such a confusing piece of punctuation that they simply avoid it altogether, but it can be fun to use a colon every now and then. Plus, the colon can add some important variety to your writing. So why not review this list of uses for the colon and give it a try?
In most cases, essentially, a colon signals “anticipation”—the reader knows that what follows the colon will define, illustrate, or explain what preceded it. This is certainly the case in the colon’s first three uses, as described below:
Rule : Use a colon to separate two independent clauses (complete thoughts) when you want to emphasize the second independent clause.
Example : Road construction in New York City might pose a problem if there is a zombie attack: It is best to know which streets are closed, as you do not want to end up lost during a dire situation
Rule : Use a colon to separate an independent clause from a list that follows the independent clause.
Example : I have collected a wide variety of important items in case there is a zombie attack: canned food, bottled water, and wood for boarding my windows.
TIP! You shouldn’t use a colon when the introductory portion of the sentence is a dependent clause (incomplete thought). The first part of the sentence must be an independent clause or a complete sentence. So the following would NOT work:
Incorrect : I have collected: canned food, bottled water, and wood for boarding my windows
Rule : Use a colon to separate an independent clause from an appositive (a noun or noun phrase that renames or identifies a noun or noun phrase right next to it) that follows the independent clause.
Example : I have the perfect solution to your problems with bullies at work: Chuck Norris
Rule : You should also use a colon at the end of a formal, business letter greeting.
Example : Dear Ms. Smith:
Rule : And, of course, you should use a colon to separate the hour from the minutes when writing numerical time.
Example : 3:00 a.m.
Commas
The Comma: T ricky, Mysterious, and Subjective?
People often think commas are tricky and mysterious, and while they may be tricky if we aren’t familiar with the rules, they are not mysterious at all. They are not subjective, and no matter what your third-grade teacher told you, it’s probably not a good idea to place a comma wherever you feel the need to take a breath. What happens if you have a stuffy nose from a cold? Your essay might be littered with unnecessary commas .
There are actually some pretty clear-cut rules regarding commas, and while some rules seem to be clearer than others, at least in terms of how much most people understand, there are some basic comma rules that can help you know when and when not to use a comma.
Source: Excelsior College OWL
With Coordinating Conjunctions
Rule : Use a comma with a coordinating conjunction when combining two independent clauses.
An independent clause is a term for a complete thought or sentence with both a subject and a verb. A coordinating conjunction is a conjunction that combines two equal elements and can combine two complete sentences. We have seven coordinating conjunctions in American English:
| For | Or |
| And | Yet |
| Nor | So |
| But |
Rule: Coordinating conjunctions can connect all kinds of words and phrases, but when they are used to connect independent clauses, we must place a comma before the coordinating conjunction, as illustrated in the following example:
Example: I am preparing for a zombie invasion, and I am building a strong zombie fort around my home.
Rule: If the coordinating conjunction does not connect two independent clauses, do not place a comma before the coordinating conjunction, as illustrated in the following example:
Example: I am preparing for a zombie invasion and am building a strong zombie fort around my home.
Items i n a Series
Rule : Use a comma to separate items in a series (three or more things).
You should even place a comma between the last two, although some writing style guidelines now omit this comma. In academic culture, we still use the serial or “Oxford” comma, so even punctuation rules have a rhetorical context.
In some situations, you may not use the serial comma, but in academic writing you should, as illustrated in these examples:
She stayed up all night watching scary movies and ate popcorn, peanuts, and chocolate.
She ran into the house, shut the door, and locked all of the locks because she thought a werewolf was behind her.
With Introductory Phrases
Rule : Use commas after introductory words or phrases.
Subordinating conjunctions are words that connect, but unlike coordinating conjunctions , which connect equal parts, subordinating conjunctions connect dependent clauses (incomplete thoughts) to independent clauses.
When you see a subordinating conjunction at the beginning of a sentence, this signals an introductory phrase, and you know a comma is coming at the end of that subordinate phrase, as illustrated in these examples:
Because his favorite team lost the Super Bowl, he would not speak to anyone about the game for two years.
Although they have stored a lot of food in their basement, I am not sure if they have enough for a zombie apocalypse.
Some of the most common subordinating conjunctions include the following:
| because | although | after |
| while | since | Tip |
When these same phrases appear at the end of a sentence, they are not set off by commas, except in cases of strong contrast—for instance, in the case of the word although .
He would not speak to anyone about the game for two years because his favorite team lost the Super Bowl.
I am not sure if they have enough for a zombie apocalypse , although they have stored a lot of food in their basement.
You should also place a comma after introductory words, as illustrated in this example:
However, video games make great presents for a teenager.
With Essential & Nonessential Information
Rule : Use commas in the middle of a sentence to set off words or phrases that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
The New York Yankees, who happen to be my favorite team, have won more World Series than any other team in baseball.
The Boston Red Sox, however, won the World Series only seven times.
This rule can be a little tricky because of some misinformation we may have received at some point in elementary school. Were you ever taught that the trick to determining whether or not you need commas around information in the middle of a sentence was to pull out that information and see if the sentence was still complete? If the sentence was still complete, then you would know you needed a comma around that extra information.
Well, that doesn’t always work so well.
The best tip is to think about how meaning would be affected if you pulled out the word or phrase. If the meaning is not really affected, the word or phrase is not essential and should be placed inside a set of commas.
Rule: Conversely, it’s important to remember that essential words or phrases should not be set off with commas.
Example: Her copy of Skyrim that I borrowed last week was the best game I have ever played and probably the best video game in the history of the world.
With Adjectives
Rule : Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives describing the same noun .
An adjective is a word that describes a noun, and when we have two coordinate or “equal” adjectives describing the same noun, we need to place a comma between those adjectives, as illustrated in this example:
It was a stressful, sleepless night because I stayed up too late playing Dead Space.
If the adjectives aren’t coordinate, or “equal,” you should not separate them with a comma, as illustrated in this example:
Everyone knows the white frame house on Third Street is haunted.
A good trick to help you determine whether or not adjectives are coordinate is to try reading the sentence with the adjectives in reverse order or to add the word and between them. If the sentence would still make sense to you, the adjectives are coordinate, and you would need to separate them with a comma if they are describing a single noun.
With Shifts at the End
Rule : Use a comma to separate coordinate elements at the end of a sentence or to indicate a distinct shift at the end of a sentence.
This comma rule is pretty straightforward. If you have a distinct shift at the end in content or a shift at the end for emphasis, you should set off that shift at the end with a comma.
You want me to fight Chuck Norris for you? I am brave , not crazy.
You are going to stand in line for the new Halo 4 , aren’t you?
With Quotes
Rule : Use a comma between the main discourse and a quote.
Whether you are writing dialog or setting up a quote from a source in your research essay, you should use a comma to separate the main discourse from your quote.
As Bilbo Baggins said, “I like half of you half as well as I should like, and like less than half of you half as well as you deserve!”
My favorite line in Shakespeare’s Macbeth is when the witches say, “Double, double, toil and trouble; fire, burn; and cauldron, bubble.”
With Places & Dates
Rule : Use commas to set apart geographical names and to separate items in dates, except for between the month and the day.
Geographical names: When I heard zombies had been located in New York, New York, I knew it was time to move to Los Angeles, California .
It is a good thing that letter made it to 4 Privet Drive, Little Whinging, Surrey, England .
Items in dates: I know the Mayan calendar indicates the end of the world on December 21, 2012, but I am going to stick with Nostradamus because he gave us until 3797.
Comma Abuse
Finally, don’t abuse the poor comma. It hasn’t done anything to you. Well, it may have caused you some stress from time to time, but you should not abuse it. You should definitely not use a comma in the following instances:
- To separate a subject from a verb.
Incorrect: My zombie plan, involves the complete and utter failure of your zombie plan.
- Between two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
Incorrect: Do those vampires really sparkle in the sunlight, and drink only animal blood?
- Between two nouns or noun phrases in a compound subject.
Incorrect: Aggressive newbies, and campers are ruining the gaming experiences for me.
- To set off a dependent clause at the end of a sentence, except in cases of strong contrast.
Incorrect: My gaming confidence is at an all-time low, because I got pawned ten times by a second-grader.
Tip!
Students often struggle with commas when it comes to using them correctly with the coordinating conjunctions— and , but , or , for , nor , so , and yet .
The important thing to remember is that you have to keep in mind what else is around that conjunction. You can’t assume that every time you use and you’ll need a comma. Sometimes, you will, and, sometimes, you won’t.
Dashes
The dash is kind of like the superhero of punctuation. Not only does it have a cool, sleek name, it’s often referred to as the “super comma.” But you can’t just go around using dashes because you want super commas. There are some rules you should follow, and you don’t want to overuse any one type of punctuation.
The following two rules should help you make good decisions regarding that dashing dash:
Rule: You use dashes to set apart or emphasize the content that is within the dashes or after a dash. The content within the dashes or after the dash gets more emphasis than it would if you just used commas or parentheses.
Examples: His ideas regarding an evacuation in case of a zombie attack are certainly controversial—even radical.
I think the reason those books became so popular—so much so that they became a cultural phenomenon—is that the world was ready for a little bit of magic.
Rule: You can also use dashes to set apart an appositive phrase or extra information that contains commas.
Example: The changes that came with the arrival of the eleventh doctor—the screwdriver, the TARDIS, and all of the side characters—certainly surprised many fans.
Of course, while the rules related to using dashes are relatively simple, there seems to be great confusion over how the dash is actually created in word processing programs.
To be sure, the dash is no hyphen . The hyphen is smaller and comes between words like mother-in-law. The dash is longer and is created by placing two hyphens in a row. When you space after the word after the dash, most word processing programs will turn those two little hyphens — into a dash—like so.
Ellipses
Many people use an ellipsis to show a pause or hint at the future in informal writing. Ellipses appear this way frequently in Facebook messages and emails. Interestingly, although this use of an ellipsis was technically incorrect at one time, it’s becoming “more” correct over time with some style manuals suggesting you can use an ellipsis in this manner if you use it sparingly.
Still, in formal writing, it’s not a good idea to use an ellipsis to show a pause or to create anticipation of some kind. Academic style guides recommend using an ellipsis to show that you have omitted words in quotes.
Here is an example of how to use ellipses in a formal, academic writing situation.
Quote:
“Often, a school is your best bet—perhaps not for education but certainly for protection from an undead attack.”
—
Max Brooks
,
The Zombie Survival Guide
Example: “Often, a school is your best bet . . . for protection from an undead attack.”
Of course, now that you know when to use an ellipsis you may be wondering how to make one. An ellipsis is three periods or dots, and most style guides call for a space between each dot. So, you would type period, space, period, space, and period. You also need a space before and after the ellipsis. One tip is to make sure your ellipsis does not stretch to the next line. It must be all on one line. If you are ending a sentence with an ellipsis, it may look like you have a four-dot ellipsis, but there is really no such thing. The first dot is your period. Then, you have your ellipsis. In this situation, you will also put a space between each period.
Example: According to Jones (2012), “ The Walking Dead series added to the popularity of zombies. . . . However, several movies are responsible for the initial interest” (p. 31).
The key is that you shouldn’t change the meaning of the quote. The second quote here isn’t nearly so witty, but the basic idea hasn’t been changed. When you have long quotes and you need to eliminate some unnecessary information from those quotes, an ellipsis can be very helpful.
Exclamation Marks
You won’t use many exclamation marks in academic writing. The exclamation mark is kind of the equivalent of yelling, and most academic writing situations don’t call for much yelling, though you may feel like yelling about some of your assignments.
However, exclamation marks do serve an important function by adding emphasis to commands or other phrases, and you may find yourself needing the exclamation mark when you write dialog for certain narrative assignments. In most cases, you should be careful with exclamation marks and make sure the situation calls for them.
You can certainly see the difference between a sentence punctuated with a period and one punctuated with an exclamation mark.
Watch out.
Watch out!
Zombies are coming.
Zombies are coming!
Hyphens
Hyphenating Words
“The basic rule of hyphens . . . is that they’re used to form compound modifiers, that is, to link two or more words that are acting as adjectives or sometimes adverbs.” (Casagrande, 2006, p. 62)
Rule: When you have two or more words that modify or describe a noun that follows, you should hyphenate those words. But a word of caution: you shouldn’t hyphenate the same words if they come after the noun.
Examples:
I thought we were in a
long-term
relationship.
Everyone knew that relationship was not long term.
I really need a
fuel-efficient
car to save money for more video games.
To save money for video games, I bought a car with better fuel efficiency.
I have a
three-year-old
son who mimics every word you say.
I have a son who mimics every word you say; he is three years old.
Hyphens have other uses including acting with prefixes, suffixes, nouns, letters, and numbers and clarifying the meaning of words.
Rule: Hyphenate words that begin with self , all , ex , and words that begin with a capital letter or number.
| Examples: | ex-husband | all-inclusive | self-help | the A-team |
Of course, we should also hyphenate compound numbers like twenty-five or thirty-seven
Finally, it’s important to note that hyphen “rules” are more like the Pirate Code in that they are really more like guidelines. Even the “experts” will disagree about whether or not some words or groups of words should be hyphenated. It’s definitely a good idea to double-check with the style manual you are using, such as the APA or MLA manuals, and for tricky words, you can consult a good dictionary.
Parenth eses
Parent heses: More Than Helpful Emoticon Tools
Interestingly, parentheses can do more than make smiley faces :) and sad faces :( like these. Although they are quite handy for these important emoticons, they serve an important function in formal writing, as well.
Rule : Parentheses are used to set off information in a sentence that is important but not really a part of the main message. It’s important to remember that your sentence should make sense if you eliminate the parentheses and all that is contained between them.
Source: Excelsior College OWL
The Headless Horseman (as the old legend goes) eliminated the disruption Ichabod Crane brought to Sleepy Hollow.
You’ll probably use parentheses most often in your research papers because both APA and MLA formatting require in-text citations using parentheses. So right after a quote or any other borrowed information, you should include an in-text citation in parentheses, as illustrated in these examples:
APA
(Jones, 2011, p.131).
MLA
(Jones 131).
TIP: The period comes after the parenthesis in both APA and MLA format. The exception to this rule is with block quotes. When using block quotes, in both APA and MLA format, the period comes before the in-text citation.
Periods
The period seems pretty straightforward. After all, for most of us, this was the first punctuation we learned when we were learning to read. See Jane run . To our first-grader selves, that meant, See Jane run, stop, take a break, keep going. You can do this thing.
Periods are certainly important punctuation because they are what we most often use to separate complete thoughts or independent clauses. Periods are how we end our sentences most of the time.
Rule: However, periods do serve another important function in the world of punctuation: You should use a period with abbreviations.
| Dr. | Mrs. | Mr. |
| Ms. | a.m. (or A.M.) | p.m. (or P.M.) |
Then, of course, there is the question about how many spaces should come after a period. If you learned to type on those things called typewriters, you learned to double space after all periods at the ends of sentences. However, this isn’t always the case anymore. We just single space after all periods, though you should consult the style guide you are using. APA style now requires a single space after a period at the end of a sentence, after requiring a double space in the sixth edition.
The lesson here is clear. The “rules” change all the time and are dependent upon your style guide. It’s important to stay up to date.
Question Marks
Rule: You should use a question mark at the end of a question - like this:
Example: When did our professor say that essay was due?
However, there is one situation involving question marks that seems to give people a lot of trouble. What about when you have a sentence that is part statement and part question? What do you do then? You have a couple of options, depending upon the situation. You might have a sentence like this:
Rule: In the following case, the statement before the question isn’t complete, so you can simply use a comma to separate the statement from the question.
Example : The question I have is, how are we going to get out of here?
Rule: If the sentence is awkward, change it so the first part, the statement part, is a complete sentence. In this situation, you might have a sentence like the following:
Example : One question remains: How are we going to get out of here?
Quotation Marks
Quotation marks are how we tell our readers we are including words that aren't our own. Whether we're using dialog or quote material from our research, quotation marks are important punctuation. The reality is that punctuation marks can really make a difference in whether or not you are breaking the law. After all, if you use someone’s words and don't let your readers know you are using someone else’s words, that constitutes plagiarism, which is most certainly illegal.
So, if you have doubts about this whole quotation thing, the following pages will be extremely helpful. This super-cool video can help as well.
Source: TheGrammarheads. (2012, September 22). Quotation marks song - educational music video . [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLB1IUNdoSE
Quotation Marks with Dialog
You may not find yourself needing to use dialog very often in academic writing, but you may be asked to write narrative essays in some classes, which often contain dialog.
Rule : When you use dialog, it’s important to use quotation marks to set apart the speech from the rest of your text. Otherwise, separating the dialog from the rest of the writing can be very confusing for readers.
"This time," my basketball coach said, “I know you can do it.” It turned out he did not really know what he was talking about.
Quotation Marks with Quoted Material
Rule: You should use quotation marks any time you use words directly from another source. Sometimes, students think putting a citation or reference at the end “covers it,” but you must use quotation marks to indicate borrowed words.
"Quotation marks serve primarily to tell the reader the exact words someone used” (Hope, 2010, p. 21).
If you paraphrase a source, this means you have put the information in your own words, and you don’t need to use quotation marks. You should still cite with an in-text citation , but you shouldn’t use quotation marks.
The key to borrowing information from sources is to remember that any words appearing inside quotation marks belong to someone else. Words that do not appear inside quotation marks are assumed to be yours.
Single Quotes
Now that you know what quotation marks are used for, you may wonder about the single quotation marks—the one that look like ‘this . ’
Single quotation marks are used for quotes within quotes, as illustrated in the following example:
The article read, “When the quarterback for the Green Bay Packers was interviewed, he said he was ‘upset’ about the call that affected the game.”
You may encounter situations where you’ll close single quotation marks and double quotation marks at the same time, leaving you with “something like ‘this.’” Don’t worry if this happens. It is correct. It just means the quote within the quote ended at the same time the main quote ended.
Jane asked, "Did you know that Bob said 'I love you?'"
Semicolons
It’s true. The semicolon is used for more things than just winking in text. ;)
One of the main uses of a semicolon is to separate two independent clauses. The semicolon isn’t like a comma ; it’s really more like a period . Using a semicolon like a comma can definitely create some trouble.
First, let’s take a step back and explain the difference between an independent clause and a dependent clause. An independent clause expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is usually called a sentence. Conversely, a dependent clause is a group of words that may contain a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought.
Independent clause:
I ran quickly to escape the zombie I encountered on Main Street.
Dependent clause:
Although I ran quickly to escape the zombie I encountered on Main Street,
Can you see the difference? The first example is a complete sentence, and the second example isn’t. (Of course, we also know the first one ends well, and we aren’t so sure about the second one.)
So now that you understand what an independent clause is and that a semicolon connects two independent clauses, we can begin to look at how the semicolon can be used.
Semicolons to Join Clauses
Rule: You should use a semicolon when you’re joining two independent clauses without a connecting word. The semicolon functions, structurally, just like a period. The difference is that the semicolon between the two independent clauses shows they are connected, as illustrated in the following examples:
If you want me to vote for you, you are going to need to tell me what I want to hear; if you are lying, I guess I will worry about that later.
I am so tired of spending so much money on canned food for my zombie apocalypse hoard; I am pretty sure the grocery store clerks are laughing at me behind my back.
Using Semicolons in Lists
So right after telling you that semicolons shouldn’t be used like commas, we should discuss one situation where the semicolon does function more like a comma. However, this is a very particular situation, so you’ll want to pay close attention.
Rule : You should use semicolons when you are separating items in a list that contains commas . Here is an example:
At the Comicon conference, I met Jeanne, from Dallas, Texas; James, from Bend, Oregon; and Stacey, from Bangor, Maine.
Because the items in the series contain commas themselves, it would be confusing to add more commas to the situation. In this particular instance, the semicolon separates the items in a series.
Tips!
Semicolons can feel a little confusing because sometimes they’re used to separate items in a series, as mentioned on the previous page, but they are really nothing like a comma. In terms of sentence structure, they can separate independent clauses, just like a period.
If you have the habit of using a semicolon like a comma, it’s important to work to break that habit. When you edit your writing, it’s a good idea to circle all of the semicolons you have used. Then, ask yourself why each semicolon is there. If you’re using it like a strong comma, you’ll need to revise.
Time to Write
Now that you have a stronger understanding of the punctuation rules, it’s time to think about how these rules might apply to your own writing. One key strategy is to think about areas in which you struggle. If you don’t have problems with apostrophes, then you shouldn’t worry too much about apostrophes.
However, it’s important to keep punctuation in general in mind when you edit. Edit your writing in several passes; you can’t catch every issue in one sweeping edit. So, with that in mind, it’s a good idea to devote one edit to simply looking for punctuation issues. It’s most helpful to review the rules right before you edit, especially the rules for the types of punctuation you have had struggles with, perhaps commas or semicolons.
Parts of Speech
You’re probably quite familiar with the “grammar police”—those people who find it necessary to correct any grammar mistake you make. In fact, you might be a member of the “grammar police” squad yourself, but if you’re not, you probably get a little tired of the corrections. After all, this person understood what you were saying. Why is it necessary to correct?
Usually, members of the “grammar police” squad aren’t necessary. When we speak in informal conversations, as long as we are being understood, the particulars of correctness are not an issue.
However, there are times when correctness is really important, and when you write for an academic audience or a professional audience, correctness is a pretty big deal. The fact is that people judge us based on our writing, and correctness is a part of that. With that in mind, the following pages, which cover grammar and proper usage of the major parts of speech, will be helpful.
Source: Excelsior College OWL
Nouns
A noun is a person, place, object, idea, or event. “The word noun , in fact, comes from nomen , the Latin word for name ” (Kolln, 1994, p. 276). Nouns are the first words you learned as a child, and you probably have a really strong sense of what a noun is. After all, how could we possibly talk about anything if we’re unable to give it a name?
So you may be wondering why in the world we have to complicate something as simple as nouns by discussing so many different types of nouns. The answer is that it’s important to learn about the different types of nouns as you work to ensure proper structures and agreements in your sentences.
Proper Nouns
A proper noun refers to a specific person, place, organization, etc. Proper nouns are capitalized because they are specific nouns.
Some examples of proper nouns are Steven , Apple (the company), New York , and the Seattle Seahawks .
Common Nouns
A common noun refers to a general group or class of people, places, objects, etc. One way to identify a common noun is called the “ the ” test. If you can use the noun with the article the (or another article like a or an ) in front of it, the word is likely a common noun.
Some examples are the game , the movie , and the ghost .
Of course, it’s important to remember that the “ the ” test does not work all the time. It’s just a good guideline. Some exceptions to the “ the ” test would be with proper nouns (discussed on the previous page) like the Dallas Cowboys and the Boston Red Sox . Even though they would pass the “ the ” test, they are proper nouns, not common nouns.
Collective Nouns
Nouns can get a little tricky when it comes to a discussion of collective nouns. Collective nouns are nouns such as family , team , and majority . The tricky part comes when we have to make a decision about whether these nouns are singular or plural because we have to choose verbs that will agree with these nouns.
And, now, here’s the really tricky part: There are no hard and fast rules. The verb you choose to agree with the collective noun actually depends upon how you want your readers to perceive the noun. Is it a single unit or a group of individuals? Even then, it depends upon context. Take the collective noun family , for example.
In the example below each member went his or her separate way, so you would see the collective noun family as a group of individuals; therefore, you should use a plural verb instead of a singular verb.
Example : The family have all gone their separate ways since Grandma died.
But let’s look at the example below where the family is seen as a single unit; here you would need a singular verb to agree with the collective noun.
Example: The whole family is coming to my house for Thanksgiving this year. I had better learn to cook a turkey.
In her book, Rhetorical Grammar , Martha Kolln (1991) says “[collective nouns] can be treated as either singular or plural, depending on context and meaning” (p. 47). So, it really does depend on the situation.
You may be wondering how this information is helpful. The key is to think about how you might perceive the collective noun and then, of course, to consider how it’s used in the sentence.
And, after all, there are only about 200 collective nouns in the English language, so you really only have to worry about 200 of these. Okay, that’s a lot. But this is a great example of how, very often, there are no hard and fast rules for grammar.
Verbal Nouns
A verbal noun is a type of noun that is derived from a verb. It looks like a verb but actually functions in a sentence like a noun. Here are some examples:
Running from zombies is hard work
Jogging is a good exercise that will help you prepare, but you have to do it every day.
We had a meeting to compare our zombie action plans.
Verbal nouns and something called gerunds (a form of a verb or verb phrase that functions as a noun phrase and subject in a sentence) are very similar. In fact, the first two examples above are examples of verbal nouns that are also gerunds. But, a verbal noun can be more than a gerund. In the last example, the word meeting , is functioning like a noun but isn’t a noun phrase that’s the subject of a sentence.
It can certainly get a little confusing, and even the grammar experts disagree sometimes about the differences between verbal nouns and gerunds. The key thing for you to remember is that, when we are talking about nouns, verbs can sometimes function in your sentences like nouns.
Compound Nouns
A compound noun is a noun made up of two or more words. Sometimes, compound nouns are hyphenated, but there are plenty of examples of compound nouns that are not hyphenated. There are also compound nouns that are written as one word. Here are some examples:
mother-in-law
waste-paper basket
full moon
blackboard
Some compound nouns that used to be hyphenated are no longer hyphenated, and some compound nouns that used to be two words became one word. The “rules” change based upon common usage.
Paper-clip is now just paperclip. And healthcare is now generally considered just one word, but some people still say it should be two words, health care .
“Rules” of correctness change constantly, and rules related to compound nouns change rather quickly. If you’re in doubt about how to write a compound noun, be sure to check a good online dictionary.
Pronouns
Pronouns are actually just another type of noun, but because they’re such an important noun type and so commonly used, they’re usually classified as a separate part of speech. A pronoun is a noun that takes the place of a noun or groups of nouns, and because pronouns are “standing in” for nouns, you have to be sure that the pronoun you choose to “stand in” agrees in number, person, and gender.
Personal (Definite) Pronouns
Personal pronouns are pronouns that take the place of common and proper nouns and refer to people and things. Essentially, they “stand in” for people and things when you want to make sure you are not repeating yourself by having to rename people and things all the time. Let’s look at an example.
In this example, the author doesn’t have to repeat my brother , thanks to the personal pronoun he .
Example: My brother is staying up late to watch a “Walking Dead” marathon. He is going to have nightmares!
Personal pronouns can be singular and plural, and there are first, second, and third person personal pronouns.
Personal (Definite) Pronouns
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| First Person | I, me | we, us |
| Second Person | you | you |
| Third Person | she, her, he, him, it | they, them |
Indefinite Pronouns
What is the difference between definite and indefinite pronouns? A definite pronoun would be a pronoun that refers to something specific, so a personal pronoun would also be a definite pronoun. (Refer back to the Personal Pronouns for examples.)
Indefinite pronouns do not refer to anything specific, so words like someone and everybody are indefinite pronouns. Indefinite pronouns can also be singular or plural .
While any pronoun that refers to a specific person or thing would be a definite pronoun, it can be helpful to refer to a list of indefinite pronouns if you need to use pronouns that refer to people or things in general and do not refer to anyone or anything specific. The list below can help.
| Singular | Plural | Singular or Plural |
| anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, something | both, few, many, several | all, any, most, none, some |
Singular & Plural Pronouns
Singular pronouns are simply pronouns that refer to singular nouns. But it can get a little tricky when you think about the fact that singular pronouns can be personal pronouns, which, as you have learned, refer to a person or thing. They will also be definite or indefinite , which means they can refer to someone or something specific (definite) or not (indefinite).
Plural pronouns are simply pronouns that refer to plural nouns. But, like singular pronouns, plural pronouns can also be personal and definite or indefinite, and they refer to plural nouns or groups of nouns.
Singular pronouns: Words like he and she are singular, personal, definite pronouns, and words like anybody and anyone are singular, indefinite pronouns.
Plural pronouns: Word such as they and we are plural, personal, definite pronouns, and words like many and both are plural, indefinite pronouns.
Tip! Don’t worry if you feel a little confused about the fact that singular and plural pronouns can also be personal pronouns. They are definite or indefinite as well. However, most likely, you won’t find yourself in situations where you have to label pronoun types. What you do need to know is that, when you choose a singular or plural pronoun, you have to make sure it agrees with the noun you’re replacing. So, if you’re replacing a singular noun, be sure to use a singular pronoun.
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns are pronouns that show ownership. Some possessive pronouns can be used before nouns and function as adjectives (words that describe nouns).
Pronouns such as my , her , or his are possessive because you would say things like my books , her computer , and his zombie plan .
Other possessive pronouns stand alone. These are pronouns such as mine , yours , hers , and his . An example would be That book is hers .
Relative & Demonstrative Pronouns
Relative pronouns relate subordinate clauses (clauses that cannot stand alone) to the rest of a sentence. Words like that , which , who , and whom are examples of relative pronouns.
Demonstrative pronouns stand in for a thing or things, and we choose these words based on how close these things are to us. For things that are nearby, we use the pronouns this and these . For things that are far away, we use the pronouns that and those .
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns end in self or selves , and they’re used when a pronoun is both the subject and the object of a sentence.
She is going to can all of those beans for her zombie storage room herself .
I am going to treat myself to a little vacation from all of this worry about a zombie apocalypse and spend the day playing Halo on my Xbox.
Reflexive pronouns can also be used to show emphasis in a sentence, as illustrated in this example:
I myself had to go through all of those web pages to find the one that would be the most helpful for our escape plan.
Subjective & Objective Pronouns
Subjective and objective pronouns are simply pronouns that occur in either the subject or the object of the sentence. Subjective pronouns tell us who or what the sentence is about. Objective pronouns receive the action in the sentence.
There are some pronouns that are always subjective and others that are always objective.
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Subjective | I, you, he, she, it | we, you, they |
| Objective | me, you, her, him, it | us, you, them |
Sometimes, determining which pronoun we should use in a sentence can be a little confusing, especially when it comes to I and me . You might want to write:
Incorrect : My mother bought my brother and I new clothes for the first day of school, even though we insisted we did not want to go.
The pronoun I in this sentence is actually incorrect because it appears in the object of the sentence. The sentence should read something like this:
Correct : My mother bought my brother and me new clothes for the first day of school, even though we insisted we did not want to go.
The trick is to take out the other person in the sentence to see if you would use I or me . For example:
Incorrect : “My mother bought I new clothes for school.”
Correct : “My mother bought me new clothes for school.”
Pronoun Agreement & Reference
Issues with pronoun agreement and pronoun references are common struggles for many beginning writers, but these problems are easy to correct once you realize the issue and just pay close attention to the pronouns you’re using in your writing.
Pronoun Agreement Errors
Pronoun agreement errors occur when the pronoun you are using to “stand in” for a noun does not agree with that noun in number, place, or gender.
Correct : Clara needs to pick up her book.
Using the singular pronoun her does agree with Clara. It does not feel natural for a native speaker to say the following:
Incorrect : Clara needs to pick up their book.
In the above sentence, Clara is the noun and her is the pronoun that agrees with Clara.
A common pronoun agreement error occurs when a writer uses a singular noun like student to represent students in general. Then, later, the writer may use they as a pronoun to replace student because the writer means students in general. This often occurs when people try to avoid that structure and use cumbersome word choices such as he/she, he or she, or (wo)men as ther is no gender-neutral singular pronoun in the English language. Using these variations is not preferred, and rewriting the sentence is a better option.
How to rewrite the sentence will depend on which style guide you are using. Both the MLA 8 th edition and the APA 7 th edition support using the singular they. On the other hand, The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) 17 th edition does not support using the singular they in formal writing unless the person being discussed prefers they. CMOS recommends rewriting the sentence so that the noun and pronoun both agree.
For example, you may see something like this:
If a student really thinks about how much they are paying for college, they are likely to be more focused in class.
According to the most recent MLA and APA style guidelines, this is correct. However, according to CMOS, the sentence should be rewritten.
You could rewrite it like this:
Correct : If students really think about how much they are paying for college, they likely to be more focused in class.
Here is another example.
Incorrect : When a chef adds a recipe to his or her Facebook page, he or she will often get many likes seemingly instantaneously.
Rewritten with the singular they:
Correct : When a chef adds a recipe to their Facebook page, they will often get many likes seemingly instantaneously.
Rewritten with a plural subject and plural pronoun:
Correct : When chefs add a recipe to their individual Facebook page, they will often get many likes seemingly instantaneously.
Rewritten without pronouns:
Correct : When a chef add a recipe to Facebook, likes appear seemingly instantaneously.
When in doubt, it is always safe to choose a plural subject so that the pronoun they flows more smoothly (and will be correct in number according to all style guides).
Pronoun Reference Errors
Pronoun reference errors can also be problems for beginning writers because it’s so easy to get in a hurry when you write and forget that you need to think about how clear your writing will be for your audience.
A common pronoun reference error occurs when students write about several different people or things and then use a pronoun later like she or it , but the audience has no idea what she or it refers to.
Here is a simple example to give you an idea about what a pronoun reference error looks like:
Incorrect : My mother and my aunt told me I should consider going to college, and she was right.
Here, the audience wouldn’t be sure which person the writer is referring to. Is it the mother or the aunt?
You want to be careful with your writing and make sure you’re clear and correct with your pronouns. Most of the time, slowing yourself down and working on some careful editing will reveal problems like these which can be easily corrected.
Tips from the Professor
Most beginning writers have a pretty good sense of correct pronoun usage, but a good editing strategy will help you make sure you have not missed any issues with pronoun agreement or pronoun reference.
One strategy is to edit your writing one time, just looking at pronouns, in addition to other editing passes. If you have had trouble with pronouns in the past, you should circle all of your pronouns and ask yourself questions about their purpose and what they refer to.
Most academics now agree that the singular they is correct. Please always refer to your style guide, as some style guides still recommend not using the singular they .
Verbs
Verbs are the parts of speech that show action or indicate a state of being. We put them with nouns, and we create complete sentences. Like nouns, verbs are foundational in our vocabulary, and we learned verbs as children shortly after we learned nouns. The following pages will help you learn more about verbs, as there really is a lot to consider when it comes to verbs, such as making our subjects and verbs agree, using active versus passive voice, and keeping our verbs in the same tenses.
We’ll explain the types of verbs first, to give you context and help you establish some “verb vocabulary,” but most writers will want to pay close attention to issues of tense , subject-verb agreement , and active versus passive voice in the pages that follow.
Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called the helping verbs because they work with the main verb in a sentence and “help it out”. Together, the auxiliary verb and the main verb form a unit.
Steven is leaving and taking his football with him. How are we going to play now?
Her favorite team has finished at the top of the conference, so she is going to buy a team jersey. I hope she buys me one, too.
Common Auxiliary Verbs
|
am
are be can could |
did
do does had have |
is
was were will would |
Linking Verbs
Linking verbs join or “link” the subject of a sentence with the rest of the sentence. They make a statement by linking things, as opposed to showing any kind of action.
Common linking verbs are any of the to be verbs: am , is , are , was , were , be , been , and being . However, become and seem are also common, and other verbs have the potential to be linking verbs. It really depends upon the sentence.
Here is an example of a common linking verb used in a sentence:
My environmental biology class is interesting because our teacher thinks Bigfoot might exist.
Here are some examples of how other verbs can become linking verbs:
That house looks haunted.
Those old shoes smell funny.
Tip! Because linking verbs and auxiliary verbs are often the same words, you may wonder how you can tell the difference between a linking verb and an auxiliary verb. The key is that linking verbs join the subject and the predicate of a sentence, and in some ways, allow the predicate to rename the subject; auxiliary verbs will be used with other verbs.
Action Verbs
Action verbs are the verbs you can probably identify as verbs quickly and easily. These are the words that show action, words like jump , run , and eat .
There are two main classes of action verbs: transitive and intransitive , and there aren’t separate lists for each class. Action verbs can be both transitive and intransitive because it all depends on the structure of the sentence.
A transitive verb expresses action toward a person or thing named in the sentence. An intransitive verb expresses action without making any reference to an object.
Source: Excelsior College OWL
| Transitive | The college freshman ate Ramen noodles. | Sophia speaks French. |
| Intransitive | The college freshman complained loudly. | Sophia speaks fluently. |
Tenses
Verbs can be in the present tense, present progressive tense, past tense, past progressive, present perfect, or past perfect. According to Martha Kolln, author of Rhetorical Grammar , there are two grammatical features of verbs that are especially useful: tense and agency, which will be discussed later in the pages on passive voice .
It’s important to understand tense because you want to be consistent with your verb tenses in your writing. It’s a common mistake to shift tenses without realizing it. This discussion of tenses can increase your “tense awareness,” which will lead to fewer errors.
Let’s take the verb to eat as an example and see how it looks in the different tenses with the subject I .
|
Tense |
Example |
|---|---|
| present tense (present point in time) |
I eat dinner. |
| present progressive (present action of limited duration) |
I am eating dinner. |
| past tense (specific point in the past) |
I ate dinner yesterday. |
| past progressive (past action of limited duration) |
I was eating . |
| present perfect (completed action from a point in the past ending at or near present) |
I have eaten dinner. |
| past perfect (past action completed before another action also in the past) |
I had just eaten dinner when the phone rang. |
When it comes to verb tenses, it’s important to be consistent and to be aware of any shifts. If you shift, there needs to be a reason for the shift. Also, APA will often require past tense in your essays, while MLA requires present tense, even if the words have been written in the past. For example, to set up a quote in APA, you might write something like this:
APA: Smith (2009) wrote, “This verb stuff is confusing” (p. 10)
MLA: Smith writes, “This verb stuff is confusing” (10).
For a more in-depth explanation of APA recommendations for verb tense usage in literature reviews and research papers, go to: Verb Tense Shift
Subject-Verb Agreement
“The basic rule of sentence agreement is simple: A subject must agree with its verb in number. Number means singular or plural.” (Rozakis, 2003, p. 62) The subject may be either singular or plural, and the verb selection should match the subject. The task sounds simple, but it’s not always easy to make the subject and verb match without some thought. Subject-verb agreement errors are common errors many beginning writers make, and they are highly-stigmatized errors, which means people will judge you for them.
Here are some tips to help you avoid subject-verb agreement errors.
Rule : When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and , use a plural verb.
Example : Suzy and her friend are missing the best movie ever!
Rule: When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by or , use a singular verb.
Example : The pen or the pencil is in the drawer, my purse, my book bag, or perhaps, my pencil pouch.
Rule : Do not be confused by a phrase that comes between your subject and your verb.
Example : Russell Wilson, as well as the rest of the Seattle Seahawks, is ready for the game against the Green Bay Packers.
Collective nouns can be tricky. Sometimes, they take a singular verb, and sometimes they take a plural verb. It depends upon how they are being used. Be sure to refer to the Collective Nouns page for more information and examples.
Rule : Fractions should be treated as singular or plural, depending upon the noun they are referring to.
Examples : Two-thirds of the zombies in “The Walking Dead” move slowly. The rest can apparently sprint
Two-thirds of your cake was eaten before you got home.
Active Versus Passive Verbs
As mentioned earlier, grammarian Martha Kolln mentions agency as one of the most important aspects of verbs you should know about. Agency involves understanding the relationship between the subject and the verb in a sentence and whether or not the subject is the agent in the sentence.
Take a moment to read the following two sentences.
Amy grabbed the zombie survival guide.
The zombie survival guide was grabbed by Amy.
Can you see how these sentences are different? In the first sentence, the verb grabbed is active because its subject, Amy is the doer or agent. Amy did the grabbing.
In the second sentence, was grabbed is passive because it describes an action done to its subject, guide . The doer of the action, Amy, is now the object of the preposition by .
Use active verbs whenever possible as they allow you to express yourself clearly, succinctly, and strongly. Active verbs imply that you're confident with what you are saying; you believe in your words. Looking back at the two sentences, you can see that the first one uses fewer words and makes no mistake as to who did the action. The latter sentence is wordy and does not directly address Amy.
TIP! You can use a little strategy to see if you’re using passive voice by checking to see if you can add by zombies after the verb. If you can, then you likely have passive voice and should restructure your sentence. In the example above, you can write, was grabbed by zombies , so you know this is passive voice. Since technical writing and APA Style require that you use active voice whenever possible, you should restructure your sentences so they use active voice.
Purposeful Passive Voice
There are occasions when you might want to use passive verbs, such as when you don’t want to mention the doer, the result of the action is more important than the doer, or the doer is unknown. Let’s take the following scenario and apply it to all three reasons for using a passive verb.
Tom and Mark, two brothers, are preparing their home for the zombie apocalypse. Tom is throwing canned goods across the room to Mark, who is stacking them on a shelf. They continue to throw canned goods across the room, despite knowing that it’s against their mother’s wishes. Tom throws a can of creamy corn to Mark and accidentally hits a vase. The vase breaks into pieces. Their mother asks what happened.
The responses could go as follows:
Tom threw the creamy corn and broke the vase.
OR
The vase was broken when the creamy corn was thrown at it.
The first sentence uses the active verbs threw and broke . It simply tells what happened and squarely blames Tom.
The second sentence uses the passive verbs was broken and was thrown . It doesn’t mention who threw the can of corn, keeping the doer unknown. Also, it might be reasonable to believe that Tom thinks letting his mother know that the vase is broken is more important than identifying who broke the vase.
TIP! There are some situations when passive voice can be useful, so it’s not the case that passive voice is “wrong.” It’s just that, in technical writing, you should use active voice because it makes for lively, more engaging writing. A good way to spot passive voice is to look for to be verbs . You should limit those as well.
Adjectives
An adjective modifies (describes / distinguishes) nouns and pronouns . In other words, adjectives change nouns or pronouns in some way. So movie is a noun, and a scary movie has been changed by the adjective scary .
It’s important to remember, too, adjectives, as in the case of a scary movie , give you a way to inject your point of view into your writing. You might also describe a loveable book , a beautiful dress , or an ominous sky . There’s a certain amount of subjectivity, of course, in all of these words, so you’ll want to work to keep your audience in mind when choosing your adjectives and do your best to make sure your adjectives (or descriptors) are specific, concrete, and will make sense to both you and your audience.
Tip! You should avoid imprecise adjectives in technical writing. Technical writing requires precision. For example, you should use five in place of "many," and avoid generalized descriptors such as a lot, great, some, and all other words that are open to interpretation.
Order of Adjectives
Adjectives need to be placed in a particular order. What information do you post first? If you’re a native English speaker, you can probably figure out the order without any thought. That’s because you understand English grammar—even if it’s only because you know what “sounds” right. And, if you’re a non-native English speaker, you’ve probably been schooled in the order.
Think about it. Why would we automatically write four gorgeous, long-stemmed, red, silk roses rather than four silk, long-stemmed, gorgeous, red roses? What drives the order in our description. The first example leads us down a logical path; the second example doesn't let us know which details are most important.
Rule : Here is the specific order for English language adjectives—
1. Intensifier
2. Quality
3. Size
4. Age, color.
Look at the two sentences again:
Four gorgeous provides the intensifier and quality;
long-stemmed provides the size;
red , provides the color;
and silk provides an additional detail.
Now look at the order of the adjectives in one of your own sentences and see if it makes sense to you. Below, you’ll find a table illustrating the royal order of adjectives.
The Royal Order of Adjectives
| Determiner | Observation | Physical Description | Origin | Material | Qualifier | Noun | |||
| Size | Shape | Age | Color | ||||||
| a | beautiful | old | Italian | touring | car | ||||
| an | expensive | antique | silver | mirror | |||||
| four | gorgeous | stemmed | red | silk | roses | ||||
| her | short | black | hair | ||||||
| our | big | old | English | sheepdog | |||||
| those | square | wooden | hat | boxes | |||||
| that | dilapidated | little | hunting | cabin | |||||
| several | giant | young | American | basketball | players | ||||
| some | delicious | Chinese | food |
Adapted from Adjectives. (n.d.) Capital Community College Foundation. Retrieved from grammar.ccc.commnet.edu
Types of Adjectives
Comparatives and superlatives are types of adjectives, but one (comparatives) provides a relative distinction while the other (superlatives) signifies the most extreme.
Comparative adjectives often end in er , and superlative adjectives often end in est .
My World of Warcraft mage is
tougher
than your character.
Superlative:
My World of Warcraft mage is the toughest character ever.
Irregular Adjectives
There are also some adjectives that are irregular when you turn them into the comparative and superlative, and some, usually adjectives with two syllables, require that you simply add more or most in front of them.
The following examples are of some regular and some irregular adjectives.
| Adjective | Comparative | Superlative |
|
kind
strong good bad careful awesome |
kinder
stronger better worse more careful more awesome |
kindest
strongest best worst most careful most awesome (as in This is the most awesome textbook ever!) |
Adverbs
Adverbs are words that modify or describe a verb , adjective , or another adverb. Just as an adjective changes a noun, an adverb changes a verb, adjective, or adverb. Adverbs are easily identified because they often end in ly , but this is certainly not always the case.
Descriptions make our writing rich and specific, so we shouldn’t be afraid of using adjectives and adverbs in our sentences.
Look at these three sentences. As you can see, the last sentence is the most descriptive and informative. The use of adverbs and adjectives helps our writing come alive.
Jon walked to the store to get canned goods for his zombie stash.
Jon walked to the large store to get canned goods for his zombie stash.
Jon walked urgently to the massively large store to get canned goods for his zombie stash.
Order of Adverbs
Adverbs most commonly describe how, but below is a more comprehensive list of the most common types of adverbs.
| Type of Adverb | Example | |
|---|---|---|
| Adverbs of manner (or how) | Christine sang the song atrociously . No more karaoke for her! | |
| Adverbs of time | Michelle did her homework yesterday , but she did the wrong assignment. | |
| Adverbs of place | I met my friend at the coffee shop , and that’s where we saw the first signs of the outbreak. | |
| Adverbs of degree | It’s too quiet in here. | |
| Adverbs of frequency | Michael Jordan rarely misses a free throw, but Shaq frequently does. | |
| Adverbs of purpose | I clean the litter box every day to keep the house from smelling . |
The Royal Order of Adverbs
And like adjectives, adverbs have a “royal order.” While you may already have an innate sense of this order, it can be helpful to review the rules.
| Verb | Manner | Place | Frequency | Time | Purpose |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Beth swims | enthusiastically | in the pool | every evening | before dusk | to keep in shape. |
| Dad walks | impatiently | into town | every morning | before work | to get a newspaper. |
| Joe naps | in his room | every afternoon | after lunch. |
Adapted from Adverbs. (n.d.) Capital Community College Foundation. Retrieved from grammar.ccc.commnet.edu
Prepositions
Prepositions are little words with a big purpose: they show relationships of time, place, and space. We might call them “glue” words because they bring other words together in ways that create meaning. Look at something you’ve read recently and take out the prepositions. Here is an example of a sentence written with and without prepositions:
Correct: With prepositions: As soon as I closed the door, the turkeys that had been waiting at the wood line ran to eat the corn I had just put out for the squirrels.
Incorrect: Without prepositions: As soon I closed the door, the turkeys that had been waiting the wood line ran eat the corn I had just put out the squirrels.
They may be generally small in letters, but prepositions are important words that give great meaning for time and place relationships among actions, objects, and ideas. It’s important to distinguish if you are throwing a ball to someone or at someone. Did you want your sandwich with or without onions? Do you need that zombie fort built at the end of summer or before the end of summer?
Even though they are small words, prepositions can be difficult—particularly for someone learning English—because their use isn’t always logical. As an example, most mid-Westerners speak of standing in line , but many on the East coast speak of standing on line .
Common Prepositions
|
aboard
about above across after against along amid among around as |
at
before behind below beneath beside between beyond but by considering |
despite
down during except excluding following for from in inside into |
like
near of off on onto outside over past regarding since |
than
though to toward under underneath until up upon verses with |
As you work to make good decisions about your preposition choices, you should consider the following preposition tips:
- It’s actually acceptable to end a sentence with a preposition. Contemporary scholars and writing style guides acknowledge the acceptability of ending a sentence with a preposition (Casagrande, 2006). It’s natural and conversational to write short sentences that end with prepositions.
PURPLE * Did you find what you were looking for ?
However, you should be aware that some professors prefer that you don’t end a sentence with a preposition. See how correctness is relative?
- You should avoid unnecessary prepositions because using prepositions unnecessarily can make your writing wordy and even confusing.
PURPLE * I am not [for] sure I have the answer.
Frank apparently fell off [of] his horse while doing a stunt for a YouTube video.
- The difference between beside and besides can be confusing. Beside means next to. Besides means in addition to.
- The difference between between and among can also be confusing. You should use between when referring to two people or things, and you should use among when referring to more than two people or things.
Articles
Articles are similar to adjectives in that they modify nouns , but unlike adjectives, they don’t really describe a noun; they just identify a noun.
We have three articles in the English language: a , an and the .
1. The is the definite article , which means it refers to a specific noun in a group.
2. A is an indefinite article , which means it refers to any member of a group. You would use the indefinite article when you aren’t trying to distinguish a particular noun and use if the noun begins with a consonant.
3. An also is an indefinite article because it refers to any member of a group. In general, you would use an if the noun begins with a vowel.
Use the article a when the noun begins with a consonant:
a game
Use the article an when the noun begins with a vowel
an opportunity
Then, as always in English grammar, there are a few tricky exceptions. If a noun begins with h , you should think about the sound it makes.
Because the pronunciation of hour uses a silent h, you should use the article an
an hour
But since the pronunciation of horse includes the "h" sound, the article is a
a horse
And if a noun starts with a vowel, but it makes a y sound, you should use a instead of an .
a university
a user
Conjunctions
If words are the building blocks for our writing, then good transitions are the cement that holds them together. To make these transitions in our writing we need to turn to conjunctions. A conjunction is a word or words used to show the connection between ideas.
The following sections will provide you with details about what conjunctions are and what they do. But, this classic Conjunction Junction from 1973 will provide you with a fun overview before you learn more.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions coordinate or join two equal parts. They are particularly important because, when used with a comma , they can actually connect complete sentences. Of course, they don’t always have to connect complete sentences. Coordinating conjunctions can also connect smaller, equal parts of a sentence.
The key to using coordinating conjunctions is to think about what they are coordinating. This will help you make decisions about which one to use and how to punctuate. First, however, we should look at the list of coordinating conjunctions. There are only seven, and you may have heard of them as the FANBOYS.
|
For And Nor |
But Or Yet So |
Refer to the section on Commas to learn when you should and should not use a comma with a coordinating conjunction.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions connect parts that aren’t equal. In fact, you can tell by their name that they make a phrase subordinate to the main phrase or clause.
Rule: A subordinating conjunction sets off a phrase, so there should always be words with it.
Common Subordinating Conjunctions
|
after although because before even |
though since though when |
Rule: When a subordinating conjunction appears at the beginning of a sentence, the subordinating phrase is always set off with a comma. When a subordinating conjunction appears at the end of a sentence, the subordinating phrase is not usually set off with commas.
Examples:
Because my alarm clock did not go off, I missed the full moon and will now have to wait until next month to go out and play.
I missed the full moon and will now have to wait until next month to go out and play because my alarm clock did not go off .
Exceptions to the Rule: When you use words like although or even though at the end of a sentence. Because these set-off phrases show contrast, they still get a comma, even when they are used at the end of the sentence.
Examples:
Although I tried, I could not outrun the werewolf.
I could not outrun the werewolf, although I tried .
You will notice the comma with the although phrase, no matter where it appears in the sentence, but the because phrase follows the standard “rule.”
It’s also important to note that although cannot stand alone like a conjunctive adverb:
Incorrect: Although, I tried to outrun the werewolf.
Note: The above example is a common, incorrect usage of although and actually makes a sentence fragment, which is a serious grammatical error.
Conjunctive Adverbs
The conjunctions that are not exactly conjunctions are conjunctive adverbs. “Conjunctive adverbs are used to connect other words. Therefore, conjunctive adverbs act like conjunctions even though they are not technically considered to be conjunctions. Conjunctive adverbs are also called transitions because they link ideas.” (Rozarkis, 1997, p. 55)
Conjunctive adverbs are words like however , moreover , therefore , and furthermore . They provide important transitions between ideas and are commonly used to help create a nice, flowing work.
Often, you’ll see a conjunctive adverb used after a semicolon to start a new independent clause, as illustrated in this example:
Example: I have several back-up zombie plans in place; however , I am sure my first plan is the best plan.
However, it’s also important to note that you don’t have to use a conjunctive adverb every time you use a semicolon and you don’t have to use a semicolon to use a conjunctive adverb. Conjunctive adverbs work well after periods, too.
Note: You don’t have to use a conjunctive adverb every time you use a semicolon and you don’t have to use a semicolon to use a conjunctive adverb. Conjunctive adverbs work well after periods, too.
Interjections
“Interjections are short exclamations like Oh! , Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing” (Interjections, 2001, para. 1).
While interjections are very short, they communicate a great deal because they are typically used to express emotion. “While any word that shows strong feelings can be an interjection, look for the usual suspects: Wow!, Zap!, Pop!, and the rest of the family” (Rozakis, 1997, p. 59).
“Ouch! That hurts!” I said to the vampire.
Woops! Did I forget to include you in the zombie plan?
Because interjections communicate strong emotions, they should not be over-used. “With interjections, a little goes a long way. Use these marks of punctuation as you would hot pepper or hysterics, because they are strong and edgy” (Rozakis, 1997, p. 59).
Sentence Structure
This section is a quick review of the fundamentals of the sentence. If you encounter unfamiliar terminology in this book or in your class, refer to this section for help. For more on sentence grammar, refer to your copy of Rules for Writers by Diana Hacker (Bedford/St. Martin's Press) for a thorough discussion of sentence grammar, along with exercises.
Basic Sentence Pattern
The simplest of sentence patterns is composed of a subject and verb without a direct object or subject complement. It uses an intransitive verb , that is, a verb requiring no direct object:
Control
rods
remain
inside the fuel assembly of the reactor.
The
development
of wind power practically
ceased
until the early 1970s.
All amplitude-modulation (AM)
receivers
work
in the same way.
The
cross-member
exposed to abnormal stress eventually
broke
.
Only two
types
of charge
exist
in nature.
Another simple pattern uses the linking verb , any form of the to be verb without an action verb:
The chain
reaction
is
the basis of nuclear power.
The
debate
over nuclear power
has
often
been
bitter.
Folding
and
faulting
of the earth's surface
are
important geologic processes.
Windspeed
seems
to be highest during the middle of the day.
The silicon solar
cell
can be
difficult and expensive to manufacture.
Another common sentence pattern uses the direct object :
Silicon conducts
electricity
in an unusual way.
The anti-reflective coating on the the silicon cell reduces
reflection
from 32 to 22 percent.
Prestressing of the concrete increases the load-carrying
capacity
of the members.
Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object
The sentence pattern with the indirect object and direct object is similar to the preceding pattern:
We are sending
you
the
balance
of the payment in this letter.
I am writing
her
about a number of problems that I have had with my Execucomp wordprocessor.
The supervisor mailed the
applicant
a
description
of the job.
I am writing
you
about a number of problems...
Austin, Texas, has recently built its
citizens
a
system
of bikelanes.
The sentence pattern using the [direct object] and object complement is not common but worth knowing:
The walls are usually painted
black
.
The plant shutdown left the entire
area
an economic
disaster
.
The committee declared the new
design
a
breakthrough
in energy efficiency.
The low cost of the new computer made
competition
much too
difficult
for some of the other companies.
The passive voice is not ordinarily considered a "pattern," but it is an important and often controversial construction. It reverses the subject and object and, in some cases, deletes the subject. (See the section on problems with the weak use of the passive .) Compare these example active and passive voice sentences:
| Passive voice | Active voice |
| Saccharin is now permitted as an additive in food. | The FDA now permits saccharin as an additive in food. |
| This report is divided into three main sections. | I have divided this report into three main sections. |
| Windmills are classified as either lift or drag types. | Engineers classify windmills as either lift or drag types. |
| The valves used in engine start are controlled by a computer. | A computer usually controls the valves used in an engine start. |
| The remains of Troy were destroyed by later builders on the site. | Later builders on the site of Troy destroyed the remains of citadel. |
| Some restaurant locations can be leased. | You can lease some restaurant locations. |
A simple sentence is one that contains subject and a verb and no other independent or dependent clause.
One
of the tubes
is attached
to the manometer part of the instrument indicating the pressure of the air within the cuff.
To measure blood pressure, a
device
known as a sphygmomanometer and a
stethoscope
are needed
.
(compound subject)
There
are
basically two
types
of stethoscopes.
(inverted subject and verb)
The
sphygmomanometer
is
usually
covered
with cloth and
has
two rubber tubes attached to it.
(compound verb)
A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction ( and , or , nor , but , yet , for ) and a comma, an adverbial conjunction and a semicolon, or a semicolon.
In sphygmomanometers, too narrow a cuff can result in erroneously high readings
,
and
too wide a cuff can result in erroneously low readings.
Some cuffs hook together
;
others wrap or snap into place.
A predicate is everything in the verb part of the sentence after the subject (unless the sentence uses inverted word order). A compound predicate is two or more predicates joined by a coordinating conjunction . Traditionally, the conjunction in a sentence consisting of just two compound predicates is not punctuated.
Another library media specialist
has been using
Accelerated Reader for ten years
and
has seen
great results.
This cell phone app
lets users share pictures instantly with followers
and
categorize photos with hashtags
.
Basic Parts of the Sentence
The subject of a sentence is that noun, pronoun, or phrase or clause about which the sentence makes a statement.
Einstein's general
theory
of relativity has been subjected to many tests of validity over the years.
Although a majority of caffeine drinkers think of it as a stimulant, heavy
users
of caffeine say the substance relaxes them.
Surrounding the secure landfill on all sides are impermeable barrier
walls
.
(inverted sentence pattern)
In a secure lanfill, the
soil
on top and the
cover
block storm water intrusion into the landfill.
(compound subject)
The main verb, or verb phrase, of a sentence is a word or words that express an action, event, or a state of existence. It sets up a relationship between the subject and the rest of the sentence.
The first high-level language to be widely accepted, FORTRAN,
was implemented
on an IBM 704 computer.
Instruction in the source program
must be translated
into machine language.
(passive construction)
The operating system
controls
the translation of the source program and
carries
out supervisory functions.
(compound verb)
The predicate is the rest of the sentence coming after the subject. It can include the main verb, subject complement, direct object, indirect object, and object complement.
The pressure in a pressurized water reactor
varies from system to system
.
The pressure
is maintained at about 2250 pounds per square inch to prevent steam from forming
.
The pressure
is then lowered to form steam at about 600 pounds per square inch
.
In contrast, a boiling water reactor
operates at constant pressure
.
The subject complement is that noun, pronoun, adjective, phrase, or clause that comes after a linking verb (some form of the be verb):
The maximum allowable concentration is ten
parts
H
2
S per million parts breathable air.
The deadening of the sense of smell caused by H
2
S is the
result
of the effects of H
2
S on the olfactory nerves of the brain.
Continuous exposure to toxic concentrations of H
2
S can be
fatal
.
A direct object—a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause acting as a noun—takes the action of the main verb. A direct object can be identified by putting what? , which? , or whom? in its place.
The housing assembly of a mechanical pencil contains the mechanical
workings
of the pencil.
Lavoisier used curved glass
discs
fastened together at their rims, with wine filling the space between, to focus the sun's rays to attain temperatures of 3000° F.
The dust and smoke lofted into the air by nuclear explosions might cool the earth's
atmosphere
some number of degrees.
A 20 percent fluctuation in average global temperature could reduce biological
activity
, shift weather
patterns
, and ruin
agriculture
.
(compound direct object)
The cooler temperatures brought about by nuclear war might end all
life
on earth.
On Mariners 6 and 7, the two-axis scan platforms provided much more
capability
and
flexibility
for the scientific payload than those of Mariner 4.
(compound direct object)
An indirect object—a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause acting as a noun—receives the action expressed in the sentence. It can be identified by inserting to or for .
In the application letter, tell
[to]
the potential
employer
that a resume accompanies the letter.
The company is designing
[for]
senior
citizens
a new walkway to the park area.
Do not send
[to]
the personnel
office
a resume unless someone there specifically requests it.
An object complement—a noun or adjective coming after a direct object—adds detail to the direct object. To identify object complements, insert [to be] between the direct object and object complement.
The superviser found the
program
[to be]
faulty
.
The company considers the new
computer
[to be]
a major
breakthrough
.
Most people think the space
shuttle
[to be]
a major
step
in space exploration.
Problem Modifiers
A modifier is any element—a word, phrase, or clause—that adds information to a noun or pronoun in a sentence .Modifier problems occur when the word or phrase that a modifier is supposed to modify is unclear or absent, or when the modifier is located in the wrong place within the sentence. Modifier problems are usually divided into two groups: misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers :
|
Sentence |
Problem |
Corrective Revision |
| They found out that the walkways had collapsed on the late evening news . | Did the walkways collapse on the late evening news? | On the late evening news, we heard that the walkways had collapsed. |
| The committee nearly spent a hundred hours investigating the accident. | So how much time did the committee spend? A minute? An hour? | The committee spent nearly a hundred hours investigating the accident. |
| The supervisor said after the initial planning the in-depth study would begin. | Did the supervisor say it after the initial planning? And when will the study begin? | The supervisor said that the in-depth study would begin after the initial planning |
| Sentence | Problem | Corrective Revision |
| Having damaged the previous one , a new fuse was installed in the car. | Who damaged that fuse? |
Because the previous fuse had been damaged, a new one had to be installed.
or Having damaged the previous one, I had to install a new fuse in my car. |
| After receiving the new dumb waiter, household chores became so much easier in the old mansion. |
Who received the dumb waiter?
|
After we received the dumb waiter, it was immediately installed.
or After receiving the dumb waiter, we immediately installed it. |
| Using a grant from the Urban Mass Transportation Administration, a contraflow lane was designed for I-45 North. | Who used that money? |
When the Urban Mass Transportation Administration granted funds to the city, planners began designing a contraflow lane for I-45 North.
or Using a grant from the Urban Mass Transportation Administration, city planners designed a contraflow lane for I-45 North. |
| Pointing out the productivity and health problems plaguing US workers, aerobic fitness programs may become much more common in American industry, according to the spokeswoman. | Who pointed that out? |
Because of the productivity and health problems plaguing US workers, aerobic fitness programs may become much more common in American industry, according to the spokeswoman.
|
Tip! To correct misplaced modifier problems, you can usually relocate the misplaced modifier (the word or phrase). To correct dangling modifiers, you can rephrase the dangling modifier, or rephrase the rest of the sentence that it modifies.
Note: One particularly effective way to correct dangling modifiers is to create a summary appositive, that is, a noun or pronoun summarizing what was just said followed by an adjective clause:
| Dangling modifier problems | Summary appositive revisions |
| Stars that were formed relatively recently should have higher concentrations of heavy elements than do the older stars, which is confirmed by observation. | Stars that were formed relatively recently should have higher concentrations of heavy elements than do the older stars, a prediction that is confirmed by observation. |
| Most astronomers now believe that the energy of quasars comes from giant black holes in the cores of the quasars, which fits the growing belief that black holes are present in the cores of many galaxies, our own included. | Most astronomers now believe that the energy of quasars comes from giant black holes in the cores of quasars, a theory that fits the growing belief that black holes are present in the cores of many galaxies, our own included. |
Parallelism
Parallelism refers to the way that items in a series are worded. You want to use the same style of wording in a series of items—it makes it easier on the reader. Widely varied wording is distracting and potentially confusing to readers. Here are some examples, with revisions and some comments:
|
Problem:
The report discusses
how telescopes work
,
what types are available
,
mounts, accessories
, and
techniques
for beginning star gazers.
(The "how" and the "why" clauses are not parallel to the "mounts," "accessories," and "techniques" phrases.)
Revision: The report discusses how telescopes work; what types of telescopes, mounts, and accessories are available; and how to begin your hobby as a star gazer. |
|
Problem:
The report discusses
how telescopes work
,
what types are available
,
mounts, accessories
, and
techniques
for beginning star gazers.
(The "how" and the "why" clauses are not parallel to the "mounts," "accessories," and "techniques" phrases.)
Revision : The report discusses how telescopes work; what types of telescopes, mounts, and accessories are available; and how to begin your hobby as a star gazer. |
|
Problem
:
While the dialysis solution remains in the peritoneal cavity, the dialysis is achieved, a process that includes
the removal of nitrogenous wastes
and
correcting electrolyte imbalances and fluid overloads
.
(The "removal" phrase and the "correcting" phrase are not parallel to each other.)
Revision: While the dialysis solution remains in the peritoneal cavity, the dialysis is achieved, a process that includes the removal of nitrogenous wastes and the correction of electrolyte imbalances and fluid overloads. |
|
Problem:
This report is intended for people
with some electronics background
but
have little or no knowledge of geophysical prospecting
.
(The "with" phrase is not parallel with the "have little" clause—this one is not even grammatical.)
|
Parallelism problems occur when different types of phrasing are used in the same areas of a document: such as for list items in a vertical list, or for all headings at a certain level within a specific part of a document. At times, working on parallelism of phrasing is pedantic and unnecessary. However, in many instances, parallel phrasing can give readers important cues about how to interpret information. A jumble of dissimilar styles of phrasing for similar elements can be confusing. Shown below are those different styles—don't mix 'em!
| Questions | Noun Phrasing |
|
How are groundwater samples collected?
How should soil samples be handled? Must monitor wells be used to collect groundwater for laboratory analysis? What should the samples be analyzed for? |
Method of groundwater sample collection
Soil sample handling Purpose of monitor wells in groundwater collection for laboratory analysis Purpose of soil sample analysis |
| Gerund Phrasing | Sentences |
|
Collecting groundwater samples
Handling soil samples Using monitor wells in groundwater collection for laboratory analysis Analyzing samples |
Groundwater samples must be collected properly.
Soil samples must be handled using the specified method. Monitor wells must be used to collect groundwater for laboratory analysis. Samples must be analyzed for specific elements. |
| Infinitives | Imperatives |
|
To collect groundwater samples
To handle soil samples To use monitor wells in groundwater collection for laboratory analysis To analyze samples |
Collect groundwater samples.
Handle soil samples properly. Use monitor wells in groundwater collection for laboratory analysis. Analyze samples. |
Numbers vs. Words
The main hurdle to overcome is to learn that in technical contexts, we use numerals in text—even ones below 10—if they are critical values. In other words, we break the rules that are taught in regular writing courses and that are used in normal publishing and copyediting practice. That's because in the technical and scientific context, we are vitally interested in numbers, statistical data, even if it's a 2 or 5 or—yes—even a 0.
The difficulty is in defining the rules.
Rule: You should use numerals, not words, when the number is a key value, an exact measurement value, or both.
Example: In the sentence "Our computer backup system uses 4 mm tape" the numeral is a key element, just as it is in a recipe: "This recipe calls for 4 cups of unbleached flour." But consider this one: "There are four key elements that define a desktop publishing system." A word, not a numeral, is preferable here because—well, how to explain it? The number of elements is exact all right, but it's just no big deal. Four, five—who cares?
To summarize the rules that we normally apply:
- Don't start sentences with numerals—write the number out or, better yet, rephrase the sentence so that it doesn't begin the sentence.
- For decimal values less than 1, add a 0 before the decimal point: for example, .08 should be 0.08.
- Make a firm decision on how to handle 0 and 1 when they refer to key, exact values and stick with it. (Style varies wildly in technical writing on these two villains.) Some technical styles choose to use words for these; they resign themselves to the slight inconsistency but better readability.
- Use numerals for important, exact values, even when those values are below 10.
- Use words for numerical values that are unimportant, such as in the sentence "There are six data types in the C programming language."
- When you must use fractions, avoid the symbols that may be available in the character set used by your software. Construct the fraction like this: 5-1/4. Be sure and put the hyphen between the whole number and the fraction.
- It would be nice if all fractions could be reset as decimals, but such is not the case when you have things like 1/8 floating around. Stay consistent with either decimals or fractions in these situations.
- Don't make numerical values look more exact than they are. For example, don't add ".00" to a dollar amount if the the amount is rounded or estimated.
- For large amounts, you can write things like 36 million or 45 billion, but, for some reason, not 23 thousand.
- Apply these rules in specific technical, scientific contexts only. Be sensitive to what the standard practices are in the context in which you are writing.
- As for percentages, Microsoft style says spell out "percent," and to avoid use of the symbol except, for example, to save space in tables. Use the word "percent" and insert a space between it and the numeral. Always use a numeral with percent, no matter how small the numeral. Use "percentage" as a stand-alone noun. For example, Over 15 percent of my income goes to pet food and A big percentage of my income goes to pet food.
Here are some examples where these rules are applied:
Some 19 million tons of sulphur dioxide are discharged from US sources alone each year, and another 14 million tons from Canada.
(Using the number "19" and the word "million" indicates an approximate amount. "19,000,000" might make some readers think it was an exact amount.)
It was not until after December 1952, when 4000 people died in London from air pollution in just a few days, that real gains in pollution-control legislation were made.
The US Army's standard airborne Doppler navigator weighs 28 lb (12.7 kg), requires 89 W of power, and operates at 13.325-GHz frequency.
All vitrain of the European classification, if more than 14 micrometers thick, has been regarded as anthraxylon.
In 1971, 11 countries accounted for about 91 percent of world production of coal.
The Department of the Interior has just published a report that reviews 65 different coal gasification processes.
Combustion turbines total about 8% of the total installed capability of US utility systems and supply less than 3% of the total energy generated.
Internal combustion engines in small power plants account for about 1% of the total power-system generating capability of the US.
The water-cement ratio will generally range from 4 gal of water per sack of cement to about 9 gal per sack.
(These are exact values here; in technical writing, use the numeral even if it is below 10.)
The problem is located in piston number 6.
(When there are enumerated items or parts, technical writing uses the number, as in this example. But notice that no "#" or "No." is used.)
The signal occurs in 6-second intervals.
The order is for 6-, 8-, and 12-foot two-by-fours.
Use Code 3 if a system shutdown occurs.
Mined coals commonly contain between 5 and 15 percent mineral matter.
The above illustration shows a 20-unit coaxial cable with 9 working coaxial pairs and 2 standby coaxials, which automatically switch in if the electronics of the regular circuits fail.
There are 59 different species of the coffee shrub, but only 4 are of commercial importance.
Most grinds of coffee contain particles ranging in size from 0.023 to 0.055 inches in diameter.
Using carrier frequencies between 0.535 MHz and 1.605 MHz in the US, AM broadcasting stations sprang up all over the country beginning in the 1910s.
As a base from which to work, 2-1/2 to 3 gal of water are needed for each sack of cement for complete hydration and maximum strength.
(These are exact values; therefore, in the technical-writing context, we use numerals. Notice how fractional values are handled: put a hyphen between the whole number and the fraction to prevent misreading.)
The order for twelve 30-foot beams was placed yesterday.
The order was for 30 fifteen-gallon tubs.
They used six 8-pound sacks of nails.
The microprocessors of the 70s and 80s operated under the control of clocks running at 1 to 5 MHz, that is, 1 to 5 million counts per second.
Your eye has a bandwidth of 370 trillion Hz, the visible spectrum.
Transmission rates on ETHERNET range from 1 to 10 megabits per second (0.125 to 1.25 million bytes per second).
In 1978, the satellite carriers' revenues were about $88 million, and by 1986, they are expected to reach $800 million.
Most communications satellites are in geostationary orbit: at an altitude of 22,300 miles over the surface of the earth and at a distance of 26,260 miles from the center of the earth (the earth's radius being 3960 miles).
Aggregates constitute about 70 percent of a concrete mix.
Uniform compaction of 95% or better of standard AASHO densities is recommended.
In this book, Chapter 7 discusses the different audiences of technical prose and translation techniques for communicating effectively with the less specialized ones.
The wheels of the four-wheel tractor give it increased speed over the Crawler, but because of the weight distribution over four wheels rather than over two wheels or tracks, this vehicle has less traction.
Hundreds of thousands of people will have purchased microcomputers by the end of 1980. Tens of millions of them will bought them by the end of the century.
There are two telephones in service today for every three people in the US.
In 1965, Dr. Gordon Moore announced his "law" that the complexity of a chip would double every year for ten years.
(Use the word "ten" here because it is not an exact amount.)
The typical stand-alone microcomputer system consists of seven physical components.
(Use the word "seven" here because, even though it seems like an exact amount, it is not a key value. It doesn't have the same significance as the "7"would have in "7 quarts of oil.")
If you are using page-zero addressing, use a RAM for memory page zero.
Primary fuel cells are those through which reactants are passed only one time.
Before recharging, a zinc-carbon battery must have a working voltage not less than one volt.
(Even in technical-writing contexts, rules for one and zero vary. Just pick a style and stay with it. Using the word "one" is the standard in this example.)
Japan has roughly one-third of the US production of dry batteries.
(In running text, always write out fraction like this, and hyphenate them. However, you'd still write "5-1/2 inches.")
The radial fractures are so extensive that they are the dominant structural element over half of Mars's surface.
(And just to be sure, "half" by itself in running text is always a word.)
A nanosecond is one-billionth of a second.
Inside the UP are three 16-bit registers.
(When you have two separate numerical values side by side, one has to be a word, and the other a numeral. Styles vary here, but make the numeral the higher number. Contrast with the next example.)
Data from the frequency counter take the form of 16 seven-bit ASCII words.
Sales of batteries have increased from $510 million on the average during 1957-1959 to $867 million in 1966 and are projected to exceed $1.8 billion in 1980.
The speed of light is roughly 300 million meters per second.
Fifty-three representatives of different software development companies showed up at the meeting.
(Never start a sentence with a numeral in any writing context. With this example, some rewriting might be a wise idea to get the numerical out of the beginning of the sentence, as in the following rewrite.)
At the meeting, 53 representatives of different software development companies showed up.
Symbols and Abbreviations
In technical-writing contexts, you may often have to decide whether to use " or ' for inches or feet or whether to use i nches , in, or in.
Symbols and abbreviations are distracting to readers; they are different from the normal flow of words. However, there are plenty of cases where the written-out version is more distracting than the symbol or abbreviation. Also, the context (specifically, technical or nontechnical) has a lot to do with which to use.
Imagine a technical document that has only one or two references to numerical measurements in inches. There is no reason to use symbols or abbreviations here—just write the thing out. But imagine a technical document with numerous feet and inch references: using symbols or abbreviations in this case is better, more readable, more efficient for both reader and writer.
But which? Imagine the amount of foot and inch references there would be in a carpentry project (for example, a dog house). In this case, the symbols, " and ' would be preferable. However, this would be an extreme case; otherwise, use the abbreviations.
When you use symbols , especially for feet, inches, and some math symbols, use a symbols-type font. Avoid the "smart" quotes for feet and inches. Use the multiplication symbol for measurement contexts.
Which are the standard symbols and abbreviations to use? Go with the standards in the field in which you are writing, or with those found in a standard reference book such as a dictionary. Don't make them up yourself (for example, "mtrs" for meters)!
What about plurals? Very few abbreviations take an s to indicate plural: for example 5 in. means 5 inches. For the few that you think might take the s , check a dictionary.
What about obscure abbreviations and symbols? If you are concerned that readers might not recognize the abbreviation or symbol, write its full name in regular text and then put the abbreviation and symbol in parentheses just after the first occurrence of that full name.
High resolution displays use larger video bandwidths, up to 30 MHz or more.
Most touch-sensitive displays use a matrix of either LED/photodiodes or transparent capacitor arrays to detect a physical touch.
The part of the memory that is easily alterable by the operator consists of RAM chips.
A satellite in geostationary orbit looks at the earth with a cone angle of 17.3θ corresponding to an arc of 18,080 km along the equator.
The arc from 53θ W to 139θ W will cover 48 states (excluding Alaska and Hawaii) and is said to provide conus coverage.
Fairchild Industries, Inc., was an early participant in commercial satellites.
The voice was compressed from the usual 64-kb/s pulse code modulation (PCM) to 32 kb/s per channel by near-instantaneous companding (a modified PCM technique).
Terrestrial microwave radio communications require repeaters spaced every 20 to 40 mi from each other.
Over a period of several days the spacecraft is tracked from the ground and positioned on station (i.e., in the preassigned orbital spot) in order to commence operations.
A velocity increment of approximately 155 ft/s per year is required to correct drift problems in satellites.
The ancient battery-like objects made by the Parthians in 250 BC were thin sheets of copper soldered into a cylinder 1.125 cm long and 2.6 cm in diameter.
The standard electrodes are the normal and the 0.1 normal (N) calomel electrodes in which the system is Hg|KCl solution saturated with HgCl.
Such batteries contain 4400 cc of water in which NaOH is dissolved.
Water pressure in the heat recovery loop can be as much as 25 psig.
This work "Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics" is a derivative of " Grammar Essentials " by Excelsior College Online Writing Lab used under a CC BY 4.0 license. "Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation" is licensed under CC BY 4.0 by Mary P. Richards.