2.5: Media Messages

Thinking Critically about Media

This section covers many elements of Media:

1. Introduction to Media
2. Mass Media & Messaging
3. Media Literacy & Media Research
4. Media Effects Theories
5. Media Bias, Decency & Consolidation
6. Media & Culture

Introduction

In this section, we embark on a critical exploration of media literacy, a vital skill in deciphering the complex interplay between mass communication, media messages, and their impacts on society and culture. Through the lens of critical thinking and writing, we scrutinize the multifaceted nature of media, unraveling how it shapes and is shaped by the cultural and societal contexts in which it operates. We delve into the intricacies of media messages, examining their construction, dissemination, and reception, and the ways in which they reflect, reinforce, or challenge prevailing norms and values. This analysis is grounded in a critical examination of media literacy principles, equipping readers with the tools to not only interpret media content with discernment but also to engage with media in a thoughtful, informed manner. The chapter further explores the dynamic relationship between media, culture, and society, highlighting the role of media in constructing social realities and identities. By integrating media studies with critical thinking and writing strategies, we aim to foster a deeper understanding of media's power and influence, encouraging readers to critically evaluate media messages and their implications for individuals and society. This comprehensive approach empowers students to navigate the media landscape with confidence, armed with the analytical skills necessary to discern truth, bias, and influence in the media they consume and produce, fostering a more media-literate, critically engaged citizenry.

Section Learning Objectives

1. Analyze the structure, purpose, and impact of media messages, identifying techniques used in advertising, news, and social media to influence public opinion and behavior.
2. Critically evaluate the reliability, bias, and ethical considerations of media content, developing the ability to discern between factual reporting and manipulated information.
3. Apply media literacy skills to create and disseminate responsible and effective media messages, understanding the role of audience, context, and technology in shaping communication in a digital age.

Mass Media and Its Messages

Section Learning Objectives

• Explain the different ways mass media affects culture.
• Analyze cultural messages that the media send.
• Explain the ways new media have affected culture.

Media Messages

"2022 EWC International Media Conference - Plenary Panel: Shaping a New Climate Change Message in the Pacific Islands" by East-West Center is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Media messages range from overt statements, like public service announcements, to vague expressions of cultural values. Disagreements over media content often stem from accusations of bias and hidden agendas. The influence of mass media on public opinion has roots in historical propaganda techniques, which continue to shape modern media.

Propaganda and Persuasion

Propaganda is the manipulation of information to influence public opinion. Historically, it has been used for various purposes, such as during the American Revolution and World Wars. Propaganda’s effectiveness depends on the motivations behind it and the audience’s understanding. Modern media uses similar persuasive techniques for advertising and political campaigns.

Figure: Benjamin Franklin used a powerful image of a severed snake to emphasize the importance of the colonies joining together during the American Revolution.

Example:

• Benjamin Franklin's "Join, or Die" illustration served as powerful propaganda during the American Revolution.

Media Effects and Behavior

Mass media not only aims to persuade but also influences behavior, particularly among young people. Studies have shown correlations between media consumption and behaviors like violence and early sexual activity. However, the exact nature of these effects remains debated.

Violence:

• The 1999 Columbine High School shooting led to debates over the influence of violent video games and movies on youth behavior.

Sex:

• Research from the University of North Carolina found that heavy exposure to sexual content in media is linked to early sexual behavior in adolescents.

Figure: The 1999 Columbine High School shooting led to greater debate and criticism over violent video games. Source: Used with permission from Getty Images.

Cultural Messages and the Media

Media often reflects and reinforces cultural values, sometimes perpetuating stereotypes. Celebrities play a significant role in shaping cultural ideals and values through their portrayals in various media forms.

Example:

• Celebrities like Derek Jeter and Bono represent attributes like athleticism and rebellion, influencing public perceptions.

Figure: Tonto from The Lone Ranger reinforced cultural stereotypes about Native Americans. Do you think this type of characterization would be acceptable in modern television? Why or why not? Source: Used with permission from Getty Images.

New Media and Society

The rise of the Internet and digital communication has transformed how people access and consume information. This shift has led to new literacy challenges and changes in how information is processed and understood.

Example:

• The journey of the "Bert Is Evil" collage from a high school website to international news illustrates the rapid and widespread migration of media content across platforms.

Figure: President Barack Obama fired General Stanley McChrystal after a controversial Rolling Stone story in which McChrystal spoke poorly of the Obama administration was leaked on the Internet.

Key Takeaways

• Propaganda and persuasion are integral to the relationship between media and culture.
• Media can influence behavior, though direct causation is often difficult to establish.
• Celebrities convey cultural values and messages through their media portrayals.
• New media has revolutionized information consumption, promoting participatory media use and content migration.

Exercise

1. Celebrity Portrayals:
   • Choose a celebrity from a magazine.
   • Analyze their portrayal in the magazine and other media forms.
   • Discuss how these portrayals reflect specific cultural values.
2. Media Influence:
   • Discuss how media affects culture, focusing on propaganda, behavior, and cultural messages.
   • Explore how new media differs from older forms in terms of literacy and information consumption.

Connecting Media Literacy to Argumentative Reading and Writing

Understanding media literacy is crucial for developing effective argumentative reading and writing skills. Media messages, encompassing advertising, news, and social media content, significantly shape public opinion, cultural norms, and individual beliefs. By critically analyzing these messages, students can deconstruct the arguments presented and assess their validity, thereby forming well-informed, evidence-based arguments in their own writing.

Media literacy equips students with the ability to create and disseminate responsible and effective media messages, understanding the role of audience, context, and technology in communication. This skill set ensures that their arguments are persuasive, ethically sound, and grounded in credible evidence, resonating with audiences and withstanding critical scrutiny.

Conducting media research involves exploring various sources to gather information and identify potential biases, which is essential for evaluating the reliability and objectivity of arguments. Recognizing media bias allows students to assess the strength of the arguments they encounter and present balanced, well-supported arguments in their writing.

Understanding media effects theories, such as agenda-setting theory, helps students comprehend the broader context of media messages and their societal impact. This knowledge enables them to anticipate and address the implications of their arguments, making their writing more relevant and impactful.

Additionally, awareness of media decency standards and cultural norms allows students to tailor their arguments to be culturally sensitive and appropriate, ensuring their message is effectively communicated and received. By integrating media literacy with critical thinking and argumentative strategies, students can confidently navigate the media landscape, critically evaluate messages, and construct persuasive, well-informed arguments that contribute meaningfully to public discourse.

Media Literacy and Media Studies Research

Section Learning Objectives of this Section:

• Define media literacy and explain its relevance in today's world.
• Discuss the role of individual responsibility and accountability when responding to pop culture.
• List the five key questions that can be asked about any media message.

Media Literacy Defined

Media literacy involves understanding how mass media works, including where information comes from, how to evaluate it, who owns major media platforms, and how messages are produced and framed. In a digital society, it's crucial to know how media messages shape our opinions and how to participate in media creation.

Key Points:

• Media literacy equips us to participate meaningfully in media discussions.
• Our social media activity contributes to cultural trends and is used by advertisers and researchers.

Critical thinking is media literacy in action, involving questioning the ownership of major media corporations and maintaining skepticism of media content, as only five corporations own more than half of the mass media channels in America. Research indicates that awareness of media ownership fosters skepticism of media content. Analyzing texts critically requires recognizing value judgments and political biases, applying critical thinking to all media outlets, and understanding their information sources and ownership. Literacy has evolved from simply reading and writing to encompassing media literacy, which is essential for decoding and processing media messages. According to the National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE), a media-literate person can access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate information, enabling critical examination of media messages. Media literacy is crucial because media exposure starts early, with children spending significant time in front of screens, making it vital to critically examine the daily media messages they receive and make informed decisions. Media literacy also teaches individuals to critically evaluate the thousands of advertisements they encounter, which often contain contradictory messages.

Bias, Spin, and Misinformation

Media messages, including advertisements, political messages, and news, can carry biases. It's important to remember that these messages are created by individuals with their own values and priorities. Media literacy helps people sift through conflicting information and understand the biases present.

Example:

• The 2010 New Mexico governor's race featured ads with conflicting and inflammatory claims. Media literacy helps people critically evaluate such messages.

The Center for Media Literacy's Five Core Concepts

1. All media messages are constructed.
2. Media messages are constructed using a creative language with its own rules.
3. Different people experience the same media message differently.
4. Media have embedded values and points of view.
5. Most media messages are organized to gain profit and/or power.

New Skills for a New World

As information becomes more accessible, education needs to focus on handling data rather than just accumulating it. Media literacy teaches students to sort through data, identify reliable sources, and recognize biases.

Example:

• Wikipedia's open-edit system illustrates the need for critical evaluation of online sources. Media literacy helps students discern reliable information from opinion.

Media literacy is essential for navigating the complex media landscape. By developing critical thinking skills, individuals can better understand and evaluate the media messages they encounter, leading to more informed and active participation in society.

Individual Accountability and Popular Culture

Section Learning Objectives

• Explain the importance of individual responsibility in interpreting media messages.
• Discuss how media messages are constructed and the purpose behind them.
• Apply critical thinking skills to analyze media messages.

Understanding Media Messages

Media literacy teaches that messages and images are constructed with various aims in mind, and each individual has the responsibility to evaluate and interpret these messages. Mass communication may be created and disseminated by individuals, businesses, governments, or organizations, but they are always received by an individual. Education, life experience, and other factors allow each person to interpret media differently; there is no “right answer” or one way to read media. However, media literacy skills help us function better in a media-rich environment, enabling us to be better democratic citizens, smarter shoppers, and more skeptical media consumers.

Key Questions for Media Analysis

The National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE) provides five key questions to ask when analyzing media messages:

1. Who created this message?
2. What creative techniques are used to attract my attention?
3. How might different people understand this message differently?
4. What values, lifestyles, and points of view are represented in, or omitted from, this message?
5. Why is this message being sent?

These questions help ensure that we remain informed about where our information comes from and why it is being communicated.

Mass media reflect and shape our social norms and expectations, creating a perception of reality that is often artificial. The challenge for consumers is to determine what is artificial in the vast array of media messages, and one effective method is to engage in face-to-face conversations and critically analyze the information we consume. Media choices significantly impact our perceptions and behaviors, and in a network society where media content is ubiquitous, it can be difficult to differentiate between personal preferences and opinions shaped by targeted advertising. Without human interaction and critical thinking, it can be challenging to discern the quality of media content. Critical theorists in mass communication analyze how media messages influence society, with Marxist critical theory questioning who controls the means of production and whether that control benefits society or small groups. Critical theory in media studies involves examining symbols and messages to discern their purposes and asking whether they represent exploitation or corruption. For instance, analyzing advertisements can reveal if they promote unrealistic beauty standards and contribute to societal pressures.

Key Takeaways

• Media literacy involves decoding and processing media messages critically.
• Individual responsibility is crucial for media literacy because media messages are received and interpreted by individuals.
• NAMLE's five questions provide a framework for analyzing media messages.

Exercise

Find a media message of any kind and apply NAMLE’s five questions to it. Consider how your impression of the message changes as you analyze it. Discuss how the message attempts to get its point across and whether it is successful.

This section highlights the importance of critical thinking and individual accountability in interpreting media messages, providing tools and questions to help navigate the complex media landscape.

Media Effects Theories

Section Learning Objectives

• Identify the basic theories of media effects.
• Explain the uses of various media effects theories.

Early Media Studies

Early media studies concentrated on mass media's role in propaganda and persuasion. Scholars then turned to behavioral sciences to understand mass media's potential effects on society. This chapter examines several key media effects theories and their implications for individuals and culture.

Direct Effects Model

One of the earliest media effects theories, the direct effects model, was prevalent in the 1920s and 1930s. It assumed audiences passively accepted media messages and exhibited predictable reactions. For example, the 1938 radio broadcast of "War of the Worlds" caused some listeners to panic, believing the fictional report of an alien invasion was real. However, the People’s Choice Study in 1940 challenged this model, showing that media consumption often reinforced existing opinions rather than changing them.

Marshall McLuhan's Influence

Marshall McLuhan argued that media technology significantly changes individual behavior and culture, encapsulated in his famous phrase, “The medium is the message.” McLuhan's ideas were controversial but influential, predicting the impact of the Internet and digital revolution on society.

Agenda-Setting Theory

Agenda-setting theory posits that mass media determine the issues that concern the public. The media influence what topics the public discusses and demands action on, rather than shaping individual opinions directly. For example, media promotion of anti-smoking campaigns shifted smoking from a personal health issue to a public health issue.

Figure: Through a variety of antismoking campaigns, the health risks of smoking became a public agenda.

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Uses and gratifications theory examines how the public consumes media to satisfy specific needs or desires. This theory suggests that individuals use media for entertainment, information, communication, and self-expression. Understanding the motives behind media consumption helps researchers comprehend the roles media play in society.

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism states that the self develops through human interaction, with media playing a significant role in creating shared symbols. Advertisements and media content use these symbols to influence individual behavior and societal norms. For example, luxury car advertisements create a symbol of success and power, affecting how individuals perceive car owners.

Spiral of Silence

The spiral of silence theory explains how mass media influence the formation and maintenance of dominant opinions. Individuals with minority opinions silence themselves to avoid social isolation, creating an illusion of consensus. This theory highlights the media’s role in shaping public opinion by marginalizing dissenting views.

Media Logic

Media logic theory posits that common media formats and styles influence how people perceive reality. Media consumers recognize and interpret these formats quickly, using them as templates for understanding real-world issues. For instance, TV news shows often use heated debates to represent public policy discussions, shaping viewers' perceptions of how disagreements should be handled.

Cultivation Analysis

Cultivation analysis theory states that heavy exposure to media causes individuals to develop illusory perceptions of reality based on consistent media messages. For example, frequent television viewers may perceive the world as more violent than it actually is due to the prevalence of televised violent acts.

Gatekeeping Theory

Gatekeeping theory describes the process where individuals or algorithms filter information for public consumption. Editors and producers select which news stories to publish, while algorithms on social media platforms determine what content users see. This gatekeeping shapes public knowledge and perception.

Framing Theory

Framing theory suggests that the way a story is presented influences how people think about the topic. News frames, including selected sources, facts, and tone, shape public perception. For example, media coverage of a war can be framed as patriotic or risky, affecting public opinion.

Limited Effects Paradigm

The limited effects paradigm suggests that while media influence is significant, it is just one of many factors shaping behavior. Social forces like religion, family, and education also play crucial roles. Thus, media messages often reinforce existing beliefs rather than changing them.

Limited Capacity Processing Model

The Limited Capacity Model states that our cognitive abilities are limited, affecting how we process media information. Messages must be encoded, stored, and retrieved to influence behavior, highlighting the challenges in changing people's minds through media.

Key Takeaways

• Media effects theories help us understand how media influence individuals and society.
• The direct effects model is largely discredited, while theories like agenda-setting and uses and gratifications provide more nuanced insights.
• Media logic and cultivation analysis theories examine how media shape perceptions of reality.
• Understanding media effects theories is crucial for critically analyzing media messages.

Exercise

Select a media message and analyze it using one of the media effects theories discussed. Consider how the theory helps explain the impact of the message on its audience. Discuss the implications of your analysis for understanding media influence in society.

Media Bias, Decency, and Consolidation

Media Bias

Media bias refers to the perceived partiality of journalists and news producers within mass media. An example of media bias is found in the ways media can bolster political opinions. One 1985 study revealed that journalists were more likely to hold liberal views compared to the general public. This finding has often been cited to argue that the media has a liberal bias. However, another study found that between 1948 and 1990, 78% of newspaper presidential endorsements were for Republicans, suggesting a conservative bias in media endorsements .

Media bias was a notable issue during the 2008 presidential race. A random sampling showed that 82% of campaign coverage stories featured Barack Obama, compared to 52% that discussed John McCain. Allegations of media favoritism towards Obama supported the idea of a liberal bias. However, other studies suggested that favorable coverage of Obama followed his rising poll numbers, indicating that media might react to public opinion rather than trying to influence it .

Media Decency

Media decency standards have evolved significantly over time. James Joyce’s "Ulysses," once banned for obscenity, is now a classic, while "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" faces bans for racial slurs. Decency is inherently political, as government regulation plays a significant role. Media studies help discern the impact of certain words or images, influencing the debate over decency standards.

Media studies related to violence, pornography, and profanity are politically charged. For example, in 2001, a Senate bill on Internet decency passed after a senator displayed egregious pornographic images to garner support . Critics of violent media, such as disbarred lawyer Jack Thompson, have used questionable research to claim links between violent video games and real violence. Despite being discredited, Thompson’s actions highlight the misuse of media studies to support personal agendas .

Media Consolidation

Media consolidation occurs when large companies buy smaller outlets, creating conglomerates. This trend raises concerns about a handful of companies controlling most media. Historically, U.S. government regulation limited media ownership to prevent this, but the FCC has relaxed many restrictions.

Studies on media consolidation examine its impact on public roles and content. These studies often vary depending on who conducts them. In 2003, the FCC cited its studies to loosen restrictions on owning multiple media outlets in the same city. However, it was later revealed that a key study showing the benefits of local ownership was discarded during this decision-making process .

Key Takeaways

• Audience interpretation is crucial in media studies. Media theories range from active to passive audience interpretations. Agenda-setting theory, favoring passive audiences, must prove public influence by media agendas, while uses and gratifications theory, favoring active audiences, justifies media’s role in public life.
• Media studies often support political opinions. Studies on media bias, violence, and decency are commonly used in public debates.
• Subjective studies with predetermined outcomes often emerge from special interest groups. Politicians may mimic these styles to lend authority to their viewpoints.

Exercise

1. How are media studies used to support political opinions? Give two examples.
   • Media studies are used to argue both liberal and conservative biases in the media. For instance, the 1985 study on journalists' liberal views has been used to support claims of liberal bias. Conversely, the predominance of Republican endorsements by newspapers from 1948 to 1990 suggests a conservative bias.
2. What kind of guidelines should be used to ensure clear and objective use of media studies?
   • Guidelines should include transparency about the study’s methodology, acknowledgment of any potential biases, a clear distinction between opinion and evidence-based findings, and peer review by independent experts.
3. Identify weaknesses of popular media theories discussed in this section.
   • Direct Effects Theory: It assumes a passive audience that accepts media messages uncritically, which oversimplifies audience behavior.
   • Agenda-Setting Theory: It may overstate the media's influence by not accounting for other factors that shape public opinion.
   • Uses and Gratifications Theory: It might ignore the subtle ways media can influence audiences unconsciously.
   • Cultivation Analysis: This theory could exaggerate the extent to which media shapes perceptions of reality, not accounting for personal and social influences.

This page titled "Media Bias, Decency, and Consolidation" is shared under a CC BY license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Anonymous via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.

Media and Culture

Understanding Media and Culture

This book aims to help you understand the profound impact of media and culture on our lives. Media are intertwined with nearly every aspect of daily life, influencing how we communicate, learn, work, and relax. Understanding media can make you a more informed citizen, savvy consumer, and successful worker.

Marshall McLuhan, in his influential book "Understanding Media," argued that media shapes human lives more significantly than their content. He famously said, "The medium is the message," suggesting that media affects how we process information and form new patterns of thought and behavior.

However, McLuhan did not fully account for how culture shapes media. Culture is more than just "the arts"—it's a particular way of life, acted out daily through works, practices, and activities. James Carey, in "A Cultural Approach to Communication," highlights how we create and convey our knowledge and attitudes through various symbol systems like art, science, journalism, and religion. This broader definition of culture helps us understand the dynamic relationship between media and culture.

A Brief History of Mass Media and Culture

Until Johannes Gutenberg’s 15th-century invention of the movable type printing press, books were painstakingly handwritten, and no two copies were exactly the same. The printing press made the mass production of print media possible. Not only was it much cheaper to produce written material, but new transportation technologies also made it easier for texts to reach a wide audience. It’s hard to overstate the importance of Gutenberg’s invention, which helped usher in massive cultural movements like the European Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation. In 1810, another German printer, Friedrich Koenig, pushed media production even further when he essentially hooked the steam engine up to a printing press, enabling the industrialization of printed media. In 1800, a hand-operated printing press could produce about 480 pages per hour; Koenig’s machine more than doubled this rate. (By the 1930s, many printing presses had an output of 3000 pages an hour.) This increased efficiency helped lead to the rise of the daily newspaper.

As the first Europeans settled the land that would come to be called the United States of America, the newspaper was an essential medium. At first, newspapers helped the Europeans stay connected with events back home. But as the people developed their own way of life—their own culture—newspapers helped give expression to that culture. Political scientist Benedict Anderson has argued that newspapers also helped forge a sense of national identity by treating readers across the country as part of one unified group with common goals and values. Newspapers, he said, helped create an “imagined community.”

The United States continued to develop, and the newspaper was the perfect medium for the increasingly urbanized Americans of the 19th century, who could no longer get their local news merely through gossip and word of mouth. These Americans were living in an unfamiliar world, and newspapers and other publications helped them negotiate the rapidly changing world. The Industrial Revolution meant that people had more leisure time and more money, and media helped them figure out how to spend both.

In the 1830s, the major daily newspapers faced a new threat with the rise of the penny press—newspapers that were low-priced broadsheets. These papers served as a cheaper, more sensational daily news source and privileged news of murder and adventure over the dry political news of the day. While earlier newspapers catered to a wealthier, more educated audience, the penny press attempted to reach a wide swath of readers through cheap prices and entertaining (often scandalous) stories. The penny press can be seen as the forerunner to today’s gossip-hungry tabloids.

Figure 1.3. The penny press appealed to readers’ desires for lurid tales of murder and scandal.

In the early decades of the 20th century, the first major non-print forms of mass media—film and radio—exploded in popularity. Radios, which were less expensive than telephones and widely available by the 1920s, especially had the unprecedented ability of allowing huge numbers of people to listen to the same event at the same time. In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge’s pre-election speech reached more than 20 million people. Radio was a boon for advertisers, who now had access to a large and captive audience. An early advertising consultant claimed that the early days of radio were “a glorious opportunity for the advertising man to spread his sales propaganda” thanks to “a countless audience, sympathetic, pleasure seeking, enthusiastic, curious, interested, approachable in the privacy of their homes.”Asa Briggs and Peter Burke, A Social History of the Media: From Gutenberg to the Internet (Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2005).

The reach of radio also further helped forge an American culture. The medium was able to downplay regional differences and encourage a unified sense of the American lifestyle—a lifestyle that was increasingly driven and defined by consumer purchases. “Americans in the 1920s were the first to wear ready-made, exact-size clothing…to play electric phonographs, to use electric vacuum cleaners, to listen to commercial radio broadcasts, and to drink fresh orange juice year round.”Digital History, “The Formation of Modern American Mass Culture,” The Jazz Age: The American 1920s, 2007, www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/dat...y.cfm?hhid=454(accessed July 15, 2010). This boom in consumerism put its stamp on the 1920s, and, ironically, helped contribute to the Great Depression of the 1930s.Library of Congress, “Radio: A Consumer Product and a Producer of Consumption,” http://lcweb2.loc.gov:8081/ammem/amrlhtml/inradio.html (accessed July 15, 2010).

The post-World War II era in the United States was marked by prosperity, and by the introduction of a seductive new form of mass communication: television. In 1946, there were about 17,000 televisions in the entire United States. Within seven years, two-thirds of American households owned at least one set. As the United States’ gross national product (GNP) doubled in the 1950s, and again in the 1960s, the American home became firmly ensconced as a consumer unit. Along with a television, the typical U.S. family owned a car and a house in the suburbs, all of which contributed to the nation’s thriving consumer-based economy.

Broadcast television was the dominant form of mass media. There were just three major networks, and they controlled over 90 percent of the news programs, live events, and sitcoms viewed by Americans. On some nights, close to half the nation watched the same show! Some social critics argued that television was fostering a homogenous, conformist culture by reinforcing ideas about what “normal” American life looked like. But television also contributed to the counterculture of the 1960s. The Vietnam War was the nation’s first televised military conflict, and nightly images of war footage and war protestors helped intensify the nation’s internal conflicts.

Broadcast technology, including radio and television, had such a hold of the American imagination that newspapers and other print media found themselves having to adapt to the new media landscape. Print media was more durable and easily archived, and allowed users more flexibility in terms of time—once a person had purchased a magazine, he could read it whenever and wherever he’d like. Broadcast media, in contrast, usually aired programs on a fixed schedule, which allowed it to both provide a sense of immediacy but also impermanence—until the advent of digital video recorders in the 21st century, it was impossible to pause and rewind a television broadcast.

The media world faced drastic changes once again in the 1980s and 1990s with the spread of cable television. During the early decades of television, viewers had a limited number of channels from which to choose. In 1975, the three major networks accounted for 93 percent of all television viewing. By 2004, however, this share had dropped to 28.4 percent of total viewing, thanks to the spread of cable television. Cable providers allowed viewers a wide menu of choices, including channels specifically tailored to people who wanted to watch only golf, weather, classic films, sermons, or videos of sharks. Still, until the mid-1990s, television was dominated by the three large networks. The Telecommunications Act of 1996, an attempt to foster competition by deregulating the industry, actually resulted in many mergers and buyouts of small companies by large companies. The broadcast spectrum in many places was in the hands of a few large corporations. In 2003, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) loosened regulation even further, allowing a single company to own 45 percent of a single market (up from 25 percent in 1982).

Intersection of American Media and Culture

Learning Objectives

• Distinguish between mass communication and mass media.
• Define culture.
• Explore questions on media and culture interaction.

Mass communication refers to messages transmitted to large audiences using various media. Mass media include radio, film, newspapers, magazines, books, video games, and digital platforms like blogs and social media. Culture, defined as shared and expressed values, attitudes, beliefs, and practices of a social group, interacts with media in complex ways.

Historically, media technologies have profoundly impacted American society. The 1960 presidential debates, for example, showcased how television influenced public perception and political outcomes. Evolving technology continues to change societal expectations and interactions.

The Evolution of Media

Learning Objectives

• Discuss events that impacted the adaptation of mass media.
• Explain how different technological transitions have shaped media industries.
• Identify four roles the media perform in our society.

Media have evolved significantly, shaped by technological innovations like the printing press, telegraph, radio, television, and the Internet. These advancements have altered how we consume information and entertain ourselves.

• Printing Press: Johannes Gutenberg’s invention revolutionized media by enabling mass production of written material, influencing cultural movements like the Renaissance and Reformation.
• Telegraph: Samuel Morse’s telegraph allowed near-instantaneous communication, making distant information as accessible as local news.
• Radio and Television: These media further unified American culture by providing shared experiences and influencing consumer behavior.
• Internet: The digital age has revolutionized information storage and retrieval, leading to the convergence of different media forms.

Key Takeaways

• Mass communication involves transmitting messages to large audiences using various media.
• Culture is a shared collection of behaviors, practices, beliefs, and values, influencing and being influenced by media.
• Technological innovations have continuously shaped media and, consequently, culture.
• Understanding the evolution of media helps us anticipate future changes and their potential impacts on society.

Exercise

Reflect on the interaction between media and culture based on the questions provided. Write down your initial thoughts and revisit them at the end of the course to see how your understanding has evolved.

Why Media? What Do Media Do for Us?

The Role of Media

The evolution of media has been rapid and expansive, but it's crucial to ask: why do media play such an important role in our lives? Media fulfill several fundamental roles:

1. Entertainment: Media serve as a source of fantasy, escapism, and imagination. From 19th-century Victorian readers drawn to books about fantastic worlds to 21st-century Americans relaxing with TV shows and sports, media entertain and distract us.
2. Information and Education: Media provide access to global stories, in-depth articles, and educational resources. Newspapers, books, magazines, and online platforms offer a wealth of information. For instance, MIT's OpenCourseWare provides free access to world-class educational materials.
3. Public Forum: Media act as a platform for public discussion on important issues. Letters to the editor in newspapers and online comments on blogs and discussion boards enable public discourse.
4. Watchdog: Media monitor government, business, and other institutions. Historical examples include Upton Sinclair's "The Jungle" exposing the meatpacking industry and Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein's reporting on the Watergate scandal.

Media Characteristics and Roles

Different media have characteristics that influence how they are used:

• Books: Durable and information-rich but slow and expensive to produce.
• Newspapers: Quick and cheap to produce, ideal for daily news.
• Television: Provides visual and live coverage, dynamic but one-way.
• Internet: Encourages public discussion, interactive, but unmoderated and uncurated.

Marshall McLuhan's phrase, "the medium is the message," emphasizes that each medium delivers information differently, shaping content and perception. For example, television news is more visual and less detailed than print news.

Key Takeaways

• Media fulfill roles of entertainment, education, public discourse, and watchdog.
• Each medium has unique characteristics influencing its use.
• Media shape and are shaped by cultural values and societal needs.

Exercise

Choose two types of mass communication (e.g., radio shows, TV broadcasts, websites, newspaper ads) and analyze their roles. Consider why the creators chose that medium and how it suits its social role.

---

Convergence and the Effects of New Media

Positive and Negative Effects

The rapid growth of new media has led to significant cultural shifts. Americans aged 8 to 18 spend over 7.5 hours daily with electronic devices, multitasking to pack 11 hours of content into that time. This engagement reflects a participatory culture where users interact with and create media.

Positive Effects:

• Mental Stimulation: Steven Johnson argues that modern media like TV and video games pose cognitive challenges and invite active engagement and problem-solving.

Negative Effects:

• Erosion of Attention Spans: Nicholas Carr warns that the Internet's vast information erodes attention spans, making minds distracted and less capable of deep engagement.

Convergence and Obsolete Technology

Convergence blends distinct technologies, affecting their use. For example, cassette tapes and Polaroid films have found niche markets despite being considered obsolete, highlighting nostalgia and authenticity.

Figure 1.4. In the 1960s, the concept of a useful portable computer was still a dream; huge mainframes were required to run a basic operating system.

Key Takeaways

• Media convergence blends technologies, changing how we interact with media.
• Convergence can lead to both positive mental stimulation and negative attention span erosion.
• Some obsolete technologies thrive in niche markets due to cultural values like nostalgia.

Exercise

Compare arguments by Steven Johnson and Nicholas Carr on the effects of convergence. List points supporting your view or develop your own theory on how convergence changes individuals and society.

---

Cultural Values Shape Media; Media Shape Cultural Values

Free Speech and Cultural Values

Free speech is a core American value, but other values sometimes take precedence. Obscenity and copyright laws illustrate how cultural values impact media and communication. For example, obscenity definitions have shifted over time, reflecting changing social attitudes.

Figure 1.6 Artist Shepard Fairey, creator of the iconic Obama HOPE image, was sued by the Associated Press for copyright infringement; Fairey argued that his work was protected by the fair use exception.

Persuasion and Propaganda

Media producers with vested interests shape content to promote specific values. Governments, corporations, and organizations often use media to influence public opinion, sometimes creating propaganda.

Figure 1.7 World War I propaganda posters were sometimes styled to resemble movie posters in an attempt to glamorize the war effort.

The Role of Gatekeepers

Gatekeepers, such as reporters and editors, influence which stories reach the public. They shape media content based on cultural values. The digital age has lessened gatekeepers' power, allowing more voices to be heard but also introducing challenges like information overload and biased reviews.

Getting Around the Gatekeepers

Not only does the Internet allow little known individuals to potentially reach a huge audience with their art or opinions, but it also allows content-creators to reach fans directly. Projects that may have not succeeded as part of the established pop culture/mass media machine may get a chance in the digital world. For example, the media establishment has been surprised by the success of some self-published books: First-time author Daniel Suarez had his novel manuscript rejected by dozens of literary agents before he decided to self-publish in 2006. Through savvy self-promotion via influential bloggers, Suarez garnered enough attention to land a contract with a major publishing house.

Figure 1.10 E-readers offer authors a way to get around the traditional publishing industry, but their thousands of options can make choosing hard on readers.

Suarez’s story, though certainly exceptional, points to some of the questions facing creators and consumers of pop culture in the Internet age. Without the influence of an agent, editor, or public relations firm, self-published content may be able to remain closer to the creator’s intention. However, how then does the content reach the public? Does every artist have to have the public relations and marketing skills of Suarez? And with so many self-published, self-promoted works uploaded to the Internet every day, how will any work—even great work—get noticed?

It’s not impossible. Critic Laura Miller spells out some of the ways in which writers in particular are able to take control of their own publishing: Writers can upload their works to services run by Amazon, Apple, and Barnes & Noble, she notes, “transforming them into e-books that are instantly available in high-profile online stores. Or they can post them on services like Urbis.com, Quillp.com, or CompletelyNovel.com and coax reviews from other hopeful users.” Miller also points out that many of these companies can produce hard copies of books as well. While such a system may be a boon for writers who haven’t had success with the traditional media establishment, Miller notes that it may not be the best option for readers, who “rarely complain that there isn’t enough of a selection on Amazon or in their local superstore; they’re more likely to ask for help in narrowing down their choices.”Laura Miller, “When Anyone Can Be a Published Author,” Salon, June 22, 2010, www.salon.com/books/laura_mil...10/06/22/slush (accessed July 15, 2010).

The commingling of the Internet and popular culture poses many intriguing questions for our future: Will the Internet era be marked by a huge and diffuse pop culture, where the power of traditional mass media declines and, along with it, the power of the universalizing blockbuster hit? Or will the Internet create a new set of tastemakers—influential bloggers or Tweeters? Or will the Internet serve as a platform for the old tastemakers to take on new forms? Or will the tastemakers become everyone?

In 1993, The New York Times restaurant critic Ruth Reichl visited one of Manhattan’s snootiest restaurants, Le Cirque, first as herself, a fashionable New Yorker, and then, one week later, in the guise of a frumpy Midwesterner. In her shocking review, the critic lambasted the restaurant’s rude treatment of “Midwestern Molly”—an early battle in the fight for democratic reviews. Part of the point of Reichl’s experiment was to find out how ordinary people were treated in restaurants. Now ordinary people can tell their own tales. The Internet, which has turned everyone with the time and interest into a potential reviewer, allows those ordinary people to have their voices heard. In the mid-2000s, websites such as Yelp and TripAdvisor boasted hundreds of reviews of restaurants, hotels, and salons provided by users. Amazon allowed users to review any product it sells, from textbooks to fertilizer to bathing suits. The era of the democratized review was upon us, and tastemaking was now everyone’s job.

By crowd-sourcing the review process, the idea was, these sites would arrive at a more accurate description of the service in choice. One powerful reviewer would no longer be able to wield disproportionate power. Instead, the wisdom of the crowd would make or break restaurants, movies, and everything else. Anyone who felt treated badly or scammed now had recourse to tell the world about it. By 2008, Yelp boasted four million reviews.

However, mass tastemaking isn’t as perfect as some people had promised. One determined reviewer can overly influence a product’s overall rating by contributing multiple votes. One study found that a handful of Amazon users were casting hundreds of votes, while most rarely wrote reviews at all. Online reviews also tend to skew to extremes—more reviews are written by the ecstatic and the furious, while the moderately pleased aren’t riled up enough to post online about their experiences. And while traditional critics are supposed to uphold ethics, there’s no such standard for online reviews. Savvy authors or restaurant owners have been known to slyly insert positive reviews of themselves, or have attempted to skew ratings systems. In order to get an accurate picture, potential buyers may find themselves wading through 20 or 30 online reviews, most of them from non-professionals. Consider these Amazon user reviews of William Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”: “There is really no point and it’s really long,” “I really didn’t enjoy reading this book and I wish that our English teacher wouldn’t force my class to read this play,” and “don’t know what Willy Shakespeare was thinking when he wrote this one play tragedy, but I thought this sure was boring! Hamlet does too much talking and not enough stuff.”

Such unhelpful reviews have begun to remind people of the point of having reviews in the first place—that it’s an advantage to have certain places, products, or ideas examined and critiqued by a trusted source. In an article about Yelp, The New York Times noted that one of the site’s elite reviewers had racked up more than 300 reviews in 3 years, then snidely pointed out that “By contrast, a The New York Times restaurant critic might take six years to amass 300 reviews. The critic visits a restaurant several times, strives for anonymity and tries to sample every dish on the menu.”Donald G. McNeil, “Eat and Tell,” The New York Times, Dining & Wine section, November 4, 2008. Whatever your vantage point, it’s clear that old-style tastemaking is still around and still valuable—but the democratic review is here to stay.

Key Takeaways

• Free speech is valued but limited by laws on obscenity and copyright.
• Media content often reflects the values of its producers.
• Gatekeepers influence media content, but the digital age has democratized media creation and distribution.

Exercise

Compare an advertisement and a non-advertisement media message for their expression of cultural values. Analyze their influence and why they were presented in their particular ways.

---

Mass Media and Popular Culture

Tastemakers

Tastemakers influence public trends and preferences. Historically, figures like Ed Sullivan shaped popular culture by promoting certain performers. Today, tastemakers include bloggers, critics, and influencers.

Figure 1.9 Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert at Comedy Central’s “Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear”.

Source: Photo by Jeff Snyder/PictureGroup via AP Images

The Changing Role of Tastemakers

The digital age has transformed tastemaking. While traditional media still hold power, the Internet allows individuals to reach large audiences without institutional backing. This democratization has pros and cons, including information overload and biased reviews.

Figure 1.8 Source: Used with permission from Getty Images.

Key Takeaways

• Tastemakers historically shaped popular culture through limited media platforms.
• The digital age has democratized tastemaking, allowing more voices but also introducing challenges like biased reviews.
• Traditional media and new media coexist, each influencing popular culture.

Exercise

Find a memorable advertisement and a non-advertisement media message. Compare their cultural values and discuss the creators' choices in presentation and medium.

Media Summary

Understanding media and its profound impact on culture is essential in our modern society. Mass media, with its ability to reach vast audiences, shapes our social norms and expectations, often creating a perception of reality that is artificial. Critical thinking and media literacy are crucial tools that enable individuals to question media ownership, content, and the influences shaping our views and behaviors.

Early media studies focused on the use of mass media in propaganda and persuasion, evolving to include various theories explaining media effects. The direct effects model, prevalent in the early 20th century, assumed passive audience reception. However, studies like The People’s Choice in 1940 challenged this model, showing that media's influence is more complex and intertwined with social interactions.

The evolution of media theories highlights different aspects of media influence. Marshall McLuhan's idea that "the medium is the message" underscores how media technology shapes human experience. Agenda-setting theory suggests that mass media determine public issues, while uses and gratifications theory explores how individuals use media to fulfill specific needs. Theories like symbolic interactionism, spiral of silence, media logic, cultivation analysis, gatekeeping, and framing further dissect how media messages influence societal norms and individual behaviors.

Media literacy extends beyond traditional reading and writing, encompassing the skills to access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate information effectively. In a media-saturated environment, literacy involves understanding the roles media play in our lives, recognizing biases, and critiquing the sources and ownership of information. This critical approach helps individuals make informed decisions and resist manipulation by media content.

The interplay between media and culture is significant. Media reflect and shape cultural values, creating feedback loops that reinforce societal norms. However, this relationship is not unidirectional; cultural values also shape media production and consumption. Free speech, a core American value, exemplifies this dynamic, influencing media content while being subject to limitations like obscenity and copyright laws.

Media bias and consolidation raise concerns about the diversity and objectivity of information. The concentration of media ownership among a few corporations can lead to homogenized content that serves specific interests. Decency standards, influenced by cultural and political factors, regulate media content, highlighting the ongoing debate over what is considered acceptable in public discourse.

The digital age has transformed media consumption, with convergence blurring the lines between different media types. New media technologies offer both opportunities and challenges, fostering greater interactivity and participation while raising concerns about information overload and the quality of content.

In conclusion, the study of media and its effects on culture requires a multidisciplinary approach, incorporating critical thinking, media literacy, and an understanding of various media theories. By examining how media shapes and is shaped by cultural values, we can better navigate the complex media landscape and become more informed and engaged citizens.

Attributions

The content above was assisted by ChatGPT in outlining and organizing information. The final material was curated, edited, authored, and arranged through human creativity, originality, and subject expertise of the Coalinga College English Department and the Coalinga College Library Learning Resource Center and is therefore under the CC BY NC SA license when applicable. To see resources on AI and copyright please see the United States Copyright Office 2023 Statement and the following case study on using AI assistance but curating and creating with human originality and creativity.

Images without specific attribution were generated with the assistance of ChatGPT 2024 and are not subject to any copyright restrictions, in accordance with the United States Copyright Office 2023 Statement.

All original source content remix above came from the following open educational resources:

2.1: Mass Media and Its Messages is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Anonymous via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform

2.2: Media Effects Theories is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Anonymous via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform

2.4: Media Studies Controversies is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Anonymous via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform

1.1: The Lost Cell Phone is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Anonymous via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform

1.2: Intersection of American Media and Culture is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Anonymous via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform

1.4: How Did We Get Here? The Evolution of Media is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Anonymous via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform

1.6: Cultural Values Shape Media; Media Shape Cultural Values is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Anonymous via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform

1.7: Mass Media and Popular Culture is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Anonymous via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform

1.8: Media Literacy is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Anonymous via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform