2.4: Inferences and Assumptions

Inferences & Assumptions

Learning Objectives for "Inferences and Assumptions" Section

1. Differentiate Between Inferences and Assumptions: Understand and clearly distinguish between making inferences and identifying assumptions in various texts, and recognize how each impacts the interpretation and analysis of information.
2. Evaluate the Validity of Inferences and Assumptions: Critically assess the strength and validity of inferences and assumptions made by authors, determining whether they are supported by evidence and logical reasoning.
3. Apply Critical Thinking Skills to Construct Inferences and Identify Assumptions: Develop the ability to construct well-supported inferences and identify underlying assumptions in your own writing, ensuring clarity and logical consistency in arguments and analyses.
4. Connect Inferences and Assumptions to Argumentative Reading and Writing.

Introduction to Inferences and Assumptions

Imagine a photo showing a penguin standing behind a photographer who has his camera pointed in the opposite direction. From this image, we can infer that there is probably a colony of penguins nearby. This inference is based on the fact that the photographer is aimed and ready to capture something in that direction, implying the presence of more penguins. However, we acknowledge the possibility of error—perhaps the photographer is actually focusing on a seal, and the penguin simply wandered into the shot. Nevertheless, making this inference seems reasonable given the evidence at hand.

In this section, we will explore the concepts of inferences and assumptions.

The root of the word "infer" originates from the Latin "inferre," which means to bring or carry. Inferences involve bringing our imagination to connect what we know with what we don’t know, making educated guesses to draw conclusions.

The root of the word "assume" comes from the Latin "assumere," which means to take up. Assumptions involve accepting something without sufficient evidence of its truth. These can be false beliefs, inferences, or conclusions that affect our reasoning. Often, we are unaware when we make assumptions.

Understanding inferences and assumptions is crucial for making stronger arguments in writing and for better analyzing others' arguments. When constructing arguments, three elements are essential:

1. Claim/Opinion
2. Evidence/Fact
3. Analysis/Explanation

These components are vital for developing a well-rounded argument. When analyzing someone else’s argument, we seek to identify their claim, evidence, and analysis. In our evaluation, we aim to determine if their logic is valid. By identifying hidden assumptions within an argument, we can uncover potential flaws in the logic.

In this chapter, we will delve deeper into the differences between inferences and assumptions, their roles in critical thinking, and how to effectively use and identify them in reading and writing.

Inferences and Assumptions

As we start analyzing a claim, it’s important to realize that we all begin this process with certain preconceived ideas and beliefs that can guide or misguide our thinking. Biases and assumptions can influence our thinking. When analyzing a claim, we need to understand the difference between an assumption and an inference we naturally make about the claim being argued.

Inference refers to something we believe to be accurate based on something else we believe to be true. For example, if you email someone and they do not email you back, you may infer that they are mad or upset with you. Inferences can be correct or incorrect interpretations of our environment. They are based on evidence, whereas assumptions have little to no evidence.

Assumption refers to something we already assume or presuppose. As described by Richard Paul and Linda Elder, an assumption is usually something we previously learned and do not question. It is part of our belief system. For instance, if we believe that it is dangerous to walk late at night in big cities and we are staying in Chicago, we will infer that it is dangerous to go for a walk late at night. We take for granted our belief that it is dangerous to walk late at night in big cities. Based on our assumptions, we make inferences that guide our decisions and actions. To ensure these assumptions and inferences are accurate, we need to question them.

Hidden Assumptions

Identifying assumptions that are part of the argument but not explicitly stated is crucial. These are called hidden assumptions, missing assumptions, or suppressed premises. Regardless of the name, these cases involve an argument relying on a claim that it doesn’t state as a premise. There is a claim that must be true for the inference to make sense, but it isn’t explicitly claimed by the argument as written or spoken.

Identifying Hidden Assumptions:

1. Identify the Inference or Sub-Inference with the Hidden Assumption: Determine which part of the argument is incomplete.
2. Look at the Premises of the Inference and Identify the Terms or Topics Discussed: Each premise typically links two topics.
3. Link the Terms That Aren’t Yet Linked: Use imagination and instinct to connect the unlinked terms.
4. Write the Assumption That Links the Unlinked Terms: Formulate the hidden assumption.
5. Check to Ensure Your Argument Now Works: Ensure there is a logical link between each topic.
6. Perform the Negative Test on Your Assumption: If you negate your hidden assumption and the argument makes no sense, then you’ve correctly identified the hidden assumption.

Example Argument:

• Stated Premises: Flowers smell nice. Let’s plant some flowers.
• Hidden Assumption: We should plant things that smell nice.

"Flowers" by Nouhailler is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.

Without the hidden assumption, the argument doesn’t hold together. Identifying such assumptions helps in understanding and critiquing the argument more effectively.

Another Example:

• Argument: These wildfires are out of control! So global warming is real.
• Hidden Assumption: Global warming is the best explanation for an increase in wildfires.

Inferences and Assumptions Examples

Imagine a photo showing a penguin standing behind a photographer who has his camera pointed in the opposite direction. From this image, we can infer that there is probably a colony of penguins nearby. This inference is based on the fact that the photographer is aimed and ready to capture something in that direction, implying the presence of more penguins. However, we acknowledge the possibility of error—perhaps the photographer is actually focusing on a seal, and the penguin simply wandered into the shot. Nevertheless, making this inference seems reasonable given the evidence at hand.

Everyday Contexts

As we start analyzing a claim, it’s important to realize that we all begin this process with certain preconceived ideas and beliefs that can guide or misguide our thinking. Biases and assumptions can influence our thinking. When analyzing a claim, we need to understand the difference between an assumption and an inference we naturally make about the claim being argued.

Inference refers to something we believe to be accurate based on something else we believe to be true. For example, if you email someone and they do not email you back, you may infer that they are mad or upset with you. Inferences can be correct or incorrect interpretations of our environment. They are based on evidence, whereas assumptions have little to no evidence.

Assumption refers to something we already assume or presuppose. As described by Richard Paul and Linda Elder, an assumption is usually something we previously learned and do not question. It is part of our belief system. For instance, if we believe that it is dangerous to walk late at night in big cities and we are staying in Chicago, we will infer that it is dangerous to go for a walk late at night. We take for granted our belief that it is dangerous to walk late at night in big cities. Based on our assumptions, we make inferences that guide our decisions and actions. To ensure these assumptions and inferences are accurate, we need to question them.

Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Example 1: Local Agriculture

Imagine you are a community college student in the Central Valley of California studying agricultural science. You read an article that claims a new pesticide is safe and effective for crops. Given the article’s evidence, you might infer that using this pesticide on your family farm will lead to healthier crops and better yields. However, an assumption you might hold is that all scientific studies funded by agricultural companies are reliable. This assumption could be misguided if the company has a history of biased research. By questioning this assumption and seeking out multiple sources of information, including independent studies, you can make a more informed decision about using the pesticide.

Example 2: Community Safety

Consider a scenario where you hear from several classmates that the local park is unsafe after dark due to recent incidents. You might infer that it’s best to avoid the park at night. However, your assumption might be that all reports of incidents in the park are recent and severe. If you examine crime reports and find that incidents are infrequent and occurred over a long period, you might conclude that the park is safer than initially assumed. This example shows the importance of verifying assumptions and basing inferences on solid evidence to avoid unnecessary fear and misinformation.

By understanding and questioning our inferences and assumptions, we can enhance our critical thinking skills and make more informed decisions in our daily lives.

Practical Application in Reading and Writing

To practice finding assumptions in reading, consider a story like "Desiree’s Baby" by Kate Chopin:

1. Identify Major Assumptions: What assumptions shape the plot?
2. Support with Evidence: Which characters share these assumptions?
3. Make Inferences: What can you infer about characters’ behaviors and realizations?

Connecting Argumentative Reading and Writing to Inferences and Assumptions

Inferences and assumptions are integral to the process of argumentative reading and writing. When engaging in argumentative reading, identifying inferences and assumptions within a text allows students to critically evaluate the strength and validity of the arguments presented. Inferences are conclusions drawn based on evidence and reasoning, while assumptions are underlying beliefs or premises that are taken for granted without explicit evidence. Recognizing these elements helps in assessing whether an argument is logically sound and well-supported.

In argumentative writing, understanding and articulating your own inferences and assumptions enhances the clarity and persuasiveness of your arguments. Making clear inferences based on solid evidence strengthens the logical flow of your writing, while identifying and addressing assumptions ensures that your argument stands up to critical scrutiny. This practice not only improves the quality of your arguments but also demonstrates thoroughness and intellectual rigor, essential traits in academic discourse.

Conclusion

Understanding and identifying inferences and assumptions are crucial skills in critical thinking, reading, and writing. By questioning the hidden assumptions in arguments, you can better analyze the logic and validity of claims, leading to stronger arguments and a deeper understanding of the texts you engage with.

Attributions:

The content above was assisted by ChatGPT in outlining and organizing information. The final material was curated, edited, authored, remixed and arranged through human creativity, originality, and subject expertise of the Coalinga College English Department and the Coalinga College Library Learning Resource Center and is therefore under the CC BY NC SA license when applicable. To see resources on AI and copyright please see the United States Copyright Office 2023 Statement and the following case study on using AI assistance but curating and creating with human originality and creativity.

Images without specific attribution were generated with the assistance of ChatGPT 2024 and are not subject to any copyright restrictions, in accordance with the United States Copyright Office 2023 Statement.

The following content was used in this remixing:

5.2: Assumptions and Inferences is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jim Marteney (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) .