8.8: Pennsylvania Department of Corrections Review

Rehabilitation and Recidivism

It is an assumption of this discussion section that any combination of social, biological or psychological factors may provide a clearer pathway of criminal conduct. Thereby based on the research provided that there is no one clearly articulated path effecting behavior of an individual but rather a maze of interconnected biological, social and psychological functions that influence behavior. Therefore the rehabilitation of an offender may not be as easy as most cookie cutter applications or “one size fits all” method that has been practiced for decades (Bartol & Bartol, 2008).

Bartol & Bartol (2008) assert “in terms of interventions, as expected, family therapy and medication were seldom recommended” (p.215). However, understanding that preventing all acts of violence or criminal behavior is an unattainable goal, neuropsychological evaluations are helpful in predicting future behavioral issues and therefore should be court ordered assessments for violators of domestic abuse victims and abusers, child abuse victims and abusers and children of frequent and intense acclimation to unsavory and dysfunctional homes (Bartol & Bartol, 2008). Moreover, the application of a Multi-Systemic Therapy (MST) should be applied to the treatment of offenders. Cost is relative to exactly what you’re attempting to protect.

Recent research which focused on recidivism rates of inmate that have received educational and vocational training while incarcerated must provide attention to the skills required for job consideration when released (Hull, Forrester, Brown, Jobe, & McCullen, 2000). Their study supports the assumptions of this discussion that programs must not be generic, but specifically focused to develop skills in certain needed areas of the greater community. Correctional rehabilitation programs provided that did so found the recidivism rates of inmates were significantly less than those that did not receive training. In addition to the skills training required of inmates, equally important are the prescreening evaluations of inmates upon entry into the system. The following sections address more contemporary research of criminal behavior and antisocial behavior that may possess keys to evaluating inmates and assessing influential rehabilitation methodologies.

Neurological Aspects

Neurophysiology is the study of brain activity and neurological impairments may lead to the development of personality traits linked to antisocial behaviors; and there is now evidence that low self-control may in fact be regulated and controlled by the prefrontal cortex of the brain (Beaver, Wright & DeLisi, 2007). Dolan & Anderson (2002) assert ”that aggressive personality disordered offenders show evidence of a broad range of deficits in executive and memory function, particularly concept formation and logical memory, fits with much of the existing literature in antisocial populations. However, we have shown that it is offenders with high trait impulsivity that have deficits of this nature: a finding that may have special implications for therapeutic interventions” (p. 522). The neuropsychological evaluations of sexual offenders is the most common link between brain irregularities and sexual offenses and/or deviance including diverse types of deviance and offenders such as exhibitionist, pedophiles and rapist of adults (Joyal, Black & Dassylva, 2007).

Seo, Patrick & Kennealy attest that, “Impulsive aggression has been linked to uncontrollable negative emotion, and inability to regulate aggressive impulses which can often lead to violent behaviors. Neuro-psychological literature suggests that individuals with impulsive aggression may have abnormalities in brain regions involved in the control of emotion such as the prefrontal cortex, amygdale, and nucleus accumbens” (p. 386). Impulsive aggression has been associated with various pathological conditions to include depression, suicide and substance abuse which suggest a common biological and neurological malfunction involving serotonin and dopamine system abnormalities. Tiihonen et al. (2008, p. 206) purport “this study reports the first evidence that persistent violent offenders who fulfill the diagnostic criteria for antisocial personality disorder are characterized by abnormal brain anatomy when compared with healthy men.” Based on the previous discussion it stands to reason that correctional officials may wish to process inmates on need and expected outcome based on individual assessment of the inmate.

Genetic Aspects

The gene encoding the neurotransmitter-metabolizing enzyme monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) was found to moderate the effect of maltreatment. High levels of MAOA expression were less likely to develop antisocial problems and the inverse is true. The finding in this study will partially explain the fact that not every child subjected to maltreatment will develop antisocial mechanisms to cope (Caspi et al., 2002). “The MAOA gene is located on the X chromosome; it encodes the MAOA enzyme which metabolizes neurotransmitters such as such as norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine rendering them inactive…The Genetic deficiencies in MAOA activity have been linked to aggression in mice and humans” (Caspi et al., 2002, p. 582). Their study consisted of a sample of 1,037 from birth to adulthood through age 26 measuring four types of antisocial behavior and found for all four antisocial outcomes the pattern of findings was consistent with the hypothesis that the association between maltreatment and antisocial behavior is conditional dependent on the child’s MAOA genotype. The lower the MAOA gene accompanied by maltreatment the substantial risk of conduct disorder in children to later developed antisocial personality symptoms in adulthood (Caspi et al., 2002).

Coccaro, Kavoussi and McNamee (2000) focusses on the evidence suggesting that there are biological predispositions to aggression. The authors reviewed a case in which this issue arose in a forensic evaluation and discussed the implications of these findings in criminal settings. Aggression can be verbal, directed at inanimate objects, directed at other living beings, and it can be defensive, predatory, or impulsive. Most studies point to serotonin as one of the most important central neurotransmitters underlying the modulation of impulsive aggression. These authors work points to the possible biological vulnerability to aggression due to genetic influences. The authors support genetics and aggressive and antisocial behavior due to measures of serotonin and frontal lobe studies as they observed that: One of the most reliably documented biological variables implicated in aggressive behavior is the neurotransmitter serotonin. More recently, Coccaro et al. (2000) extensively reviewed the relationship between serotonin and externally directed violence. They referenced more than 20 studies, and their results corroborated earlier findings of a relationship between low serotonin and high incidences of violent behavior. They also reported evidence where increasing serotonin levels resulted in decreased aggressive responses in males.

These assumptions have presumably led to unilateral prison reform nationally and in the PA DOCS system outlined in the previously mentioned programs. PA DOCS in comparison to other states may be held out as a leader in risk reduction programs based on behavioral based data from empirical research. Pennsylvania DOCS has several re-entry programs to assist with the transition from prison back into the community. Studies have revealed that these transition programs are successful at reducing recidivism (Listwan, Cullen, & Latessa, 2006). Researchers will concede that there is no silver bullet to the causation of crime and requires research in most aspects of life to find the linkage. Researchers will also concede there is no one fix to offenders. Pennsylvania has committed to behavioral based and outcome based treatments in keeping with the latter philosophy.