1.17: First Declension Nouns in –η and -ᾱ and τίς, τί; τις, τι; ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτι

Module 14

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0 https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.17

Nouns

Nouns in Greek are defined just like nouns are in English; but the way they create meaning is different. As in English, Greek nouns (ὀνόματα) refer to people, places, things, and ideas. Greek nouns have endings. English nouns can change form when they show possession, as in Jada’s book, where the ’s is added as a suffix and indicates that the book belongs to Jada. English nouns also change form when expressing the plural: two suns, three oxen, four mice. The endings on Greek nouns, as we have seen previously, create the same meanings that English does through form change, word order, and the use of prepositional phrases.

First Declension Nouns in -η and -ᾱ

All first declension nouns ending in -η or -ᾱ are feminine in gender. Memorize both sets of endings, know how to obtain a noun’s stem, and know how to decline the nouns.

Dialect Note

Historically in the Ionic dialect there was a vowel shift where eta replaced long alpha. In the Attic dialect this shift occurred in the noun endings except after -ε, -ι, or -ρ: Attic χώρᾱ and Ionic χώρη.

Declining First Declension Nouns in -η and -ᾱ

To decline first declension nouns ending in -η or -ᾱ, first get the stem by removing the genitive singular ending -ης or -ᾱς. What remains is the stem, the base of the word to which the ending is joined. To the stem add the following endings:

Feminine   Set 1   S Pl Nominative -η -αι Accusative -ην -ᾱς Genitive -ης -ῶν Dative -ῃ -αις Vocative -η -αι	Feminine Set 2 (stem ends in -ε, -ι, -ρ)   S Pl Nominative -ᾱ -αι Accusative -ᾱν -ᾱς Genitive -ᾱς -ῶν Dative -ᾱͅ -αις Vocative -ᾱ -αι
Feminine   Set 1   S Pl Nominative -η -αι Genitive -ης -ῶν Dative -ῃ -αις Accusative -ην -ᾱς Vocative -η -αι	Feminine Set 2 (stem ends in -ε, -ι, -ρ)   S Pl Nominative -ᾱ -αι Genitive -ᾱς -ῶν Dative -ᾱͅ -αις Accusative -ᾱν -ᾱς Vocative -ᾱ -αι

τέχνη, τέχνης

To decline τέχνη, τέχνης ἡ skill, take the genitive singular τέχνης and remove the genitive singular ending -ης to get the stem, τέχν-. Then add the endings from Set 1 above.

	Singular	Plural
N	τέχνη	τέχναι
A	τέχνην	τέχνᾱς
G	τέχνης	τεχνῶν
D	τέχνῃ	τέχναις
V	τέχνη	τέχναι

	Singular	Plural
N	τέχνη	τέχναι
G	τέχνης	τεχνῶν
D	τέχνῃ	τέχναις
A	τέχνην	τέχνᾱς
V	τέχνη	τέχναι

χώρᾱ, χώρᾱς

To decline χώρᾱ, χώρᾱς ἡ land, country, take the genitive singular χώρᾱς, and remove the genitive singular ending -ᾱς to get the stem, χώρ-. Then add the endings from Set 2 above.

	Singular	Plural
N	χώρᾱ	χῶραι
A	χώρᾱν	χώρᾱς
G	χώρᾱς	χωρῶν
D	χώρᾱͅ	χώραις
V	χώρᾱ	χῶραι

	Singular	Plural
N	χώρᾱ	χῶραι
G	χώρᾱς	χωρῶν
D	χώρᾱͅ	χώραις
A	χώρᾱν	χώρᾱς
V	χώρᾱ	χῶραι

ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς

To decline ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς ἡ rule, command; beginning; province, take the genitive singular ἀρχῆς and remove the genitive singular ending -ης to get the stem, ἀρχ-. Then add the endings from Set 1 above.

	Singular	Plural
N	ἀρχή	ἀρχαί
A	ἀρχήν	ἀρχάς (ᾱ)
G	ἀρχῆς	ἀρχῶν
D	ἀρχῇ	ἀρχαῖς
V	ἀρχή	ἀρχαί

	Singular	Plural
N	ἀρχή	ἀρχαί
G	ἀρχῆς	ἀρχῶν
D	ἀρχῇ	ἀρχαῖς
A	ἀρχήν	ἀρχάς (ᾱ)
V	ἀρχή	ἀρχαί

1. The accent of nouns as a rule is persistent and is given by the nominative singular. The genitive plural is an exception to this rule. The genitive plural of all first declension nouns is -ῶν with a circumflex accent on the ultima.
2. The vocative is the same as the nominative in the plural of all nouns and the same in the singular for nouns of this declension
3. Note that χώρᾱς can be either genitive singular or accusative plural. χώρᾱς is a look-alike form. Use context to determine which case and number it is.
4. First declension nouns differ only in the singular. All first declension nouns follow the same pattern in the plural.
5. The diphthongs -αι and -οι when final (the last two letters at the end of a word) count as a short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood that you’ll learn in Part II of the 21st-Century series. Hence in χῶραι the accent (PLUS) is a circumflex.
6. When a first declension noun has an acute accent on the ultima in the nominative, the accent is changed to a circumflex in the genitive and dative, singular and plural. Note a similar change occurs in the same forms of the article.

Practice Declining Nouns. Decline the two nouns below. When declining, list the five cases in the singular and in the plural. Include the article. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

ψυχή, ψυχῆς ἡ soul

ἀγορά, ἀγορᾶς ἡ marketplace

Writing out nouns with their endings assists in your memorization of endings.

Pronouns and Adjectives

Remember that pronouns take the place of nouns and function just as other Greek nouns do. Adjectives agree in gender, case, and number with the nouns they modify. If no noun is present, supply the appropriate noun based upon the adjective’s gender and number or upon context. Adjectives that function as nouns are substantive.

The Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective, τίς, τί

As a pronoun the interrogative τίς, τί means who? or what?; as an adjective the interrogative τίς, τί means which? or what?

Singular
	M/F	N
N	τίς	τί
A	τίνα	τί
G	τίνος, τοῦ	τίνος, τοῦ
D	τίνι, τῷ	τίνι, τῷ

Plural
	M/F	N
N	τίνες	τίνα
A	τίνας	τίνα
G	τίνων	τίνων
D	τίσι (ν)	τίσι (ν)

Singular
	M/F	N
N	τίς	τί
G	τίνος, τοῦ	τίνος, τοῦ
D	τίνι, τῷ	τίνι, τῷ
A	τίνα	τί

Plural
	M/F	N
N	τίνες	τίνα
G	τίνων	τίνων
D	τίσι (ν)	τίσι (ν)
A	τίνας	τίνα

1. When followed by another word, the acute accent on τίς, τί never changes to a grave.

The Indefinite Pronoun and Adjective τις, τι

As a pronoun τις, τι means someone, something, anyone, anything; certain one, certain thing; as an adjective τις, τι means some, any; certain; a. Use certain when an author is making reference to something particular without making the identification precise.

Singular
	M/F	N
N	τις	τι
A	τινα	τι
G	τινός, του	τινός, του
D	τινί, τῳ	τινί, τῳ

Plural
	M/F	N
N	τινές	τινά
A	τινάς	τινά
G	τινῶν	τινῶν
D	τισί (ν)	τισί (ν)

Singular
	M/F	N
N	τις	τι
G	τινός, του	τινός, του
D	τινί, τῳ	τινί, τῳ
A	τινα	τι

Plural
	M/F	N
N	τινές	τινά
G	τινῶν	τινῶν
D	τισί (ν)	τισί (ν)
A	τινάς	τινά

1. The indefinite pronoun and adjective differ from the interrogative pronoun and adjective in accent only and are enclitics. Enclitics are pronounced closely with the word that precedes them. Some common ones are the adverbs γε, ποθέν, ποι, ποτέ, που, πως, and τοι; the conjunction τε; the pronouns με, μοι, μου, σε, σοι σου, τι, and τις; and the verbs εἰμί, φημί. Enclitics sometimes have an accent and sometimes do not. They can also affect the accent of the word that precedes them. How they do is covered in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

The Indefinite ὅστις, ἥτι, ὅτι

ὅτι. ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτι as an indefinite relative pronoun means whoever, whatever. As an indefinite interrogative pronoun and adjective it means who, what. It is formed by combining the relative pronoun, ὅς, ἥ, ὅ with τις, τι.

Singular
	M	F	N
N	ὅστις	ἥτις	ὅτι
A	ὅντινα	ἥντινα	ὅτι
G	οὗτινος, ὅτου	ἧστινος	οὗτινος, ὅτου
D	ᾧτινι, ὅτῳ	ᾗτινι	ὧτινι, ὅτῳ

Plural
	M	F	N
N	οἵτινες	αἵτινες	ἅτινα
A	οὕστινας	ἅστινας	ἅτινα
G	ὧντινων, ὅτων	ὧντινων	ὧντινων, ὅτων
D	οἷστισι (ν), ὅτοις	αἷστισι (ν)	οἷστισι (ν), ὅτοις

Singular
	M	F	N
N	ὅστις	ἥτις	ὅτι
G	οὗτινος, ὅτου	ἧστινος	οὗτινος, ὅτου
D	ᾧτινι, ὅτῳ	ᾗτινι	ὧτινι, ὅτῳ
A	ὅντινα	ἥντινα	ὅτι

Plural
	M	F	N
N	οἵτινες	αἵτινες	ἅτινα
G	ὧντινων, ὅτων	ὧντινων	ὧντινων, ὅτων
D	οἷστισι (ν), ὅτοις	αἷστισι (ν)	οἷστισι (ν), ὅτοις
A	οὕστινας	ἅστινας	ἅτινα

Practice Translating the Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key.

1. τίς ἄρχει στρατιᾶς;
2. τί δεῖ αὐτὴν πράττειν;
3. τίνι πέμπετε τὰ δῶρα;
4. τίνος βιβλίον ἔχομεν;
5. τίνας δεῖ ἐλθεῖν;
6. τίς βασιλεὺς ἄρχει χώρας;
7. τί ἔργον δεῖ αὐτοὺς πράττειν;
8. τίνος ποιητοῦ βιβλίον ἔχουσιν;
9. τίνας στρατιώτας δεῖ ἐλθεῖν;
10. εἰς τίνας στρατιώτας δεῖ ἐλθεῖν;

Practice Translating the Indefinite Pronoun and Adjective. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key.

1. ἄρχει τις στρατιᾶς.
2. δεῖ τι αὐτὴν πράττειν.
3. πέμπετέ τινι τὰ δῶρα;
4. βιβλίον τινὸς ἔχομεν;
5. δεῖ τινας ἐλθεῖν;
6. βασιλεύς τις ἄρχει χώρας;
7. ἔργον τι δεῖ αὐτοὺς πράττειν;
8. ποιητοῦ τινος βιβλίον ἔχουσιν;
9. στρατιώτας τινὰς δεῖ ἐλθεῖν;
10. εἰς τινας στρατιώτας δεῖ ἐλθεῖν;

Practice Translating the Indefinite Relative Pronoun and Indefinite Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key.

1. ὅστις ἄρχει τῆς στρατιᾶς καλὰ πράττει.
2. ὅτι δεῖ αὐτὴν πράττειν εὖ πράττει.
3. κακὰ πέμπω ᾧτινι πέμπετε τὰ δῶρα.
4. βασιλεὺς ὅστις ἄρχει χώρας κακὰ πάσχει.

Vocabulary

*ἄρχω rule, command; begin + gen.	*κακός, κακή, κακόν bad, evil, cowardly
*βασιλεύς, βασιλῆος (βασιλέως) ὁ king, chief	*πάσχω suffer
βιβλίον, βιβλίον τό book	*πέμπω send
*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary to come	ποιητής, ποιητοῦ ὁ poet
δῶρον, δώρου τό gift	*πράσσω (πράττω) do, make; fare; + κακῶς suffer
*ἐλθεῖν to come, to go	στρατιά, στρατιᾶς ἡ army
*ἔργον, ἔργου τό deed, task, work; ἔργον in truth, in deed	στρατιώτης, στρατιώτου ὁ soldier
*ἔχω have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well	*χώρᾱ, χώρᾱς ἡ land, country

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, adapted from Euripides’ Herakles or Herakles Mainomenos (Ἡρακλῆς μαινόμενος). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Note that the third declension increases the number of possible endings for the nominative singular. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key and then go back and reread the sentences a couple of times more, trying to read rather than translate.

Case	Ending	Function
Nominative	-α, -η, -ηρ, -ης, -ξ, -ο, -οι, -ος, -ς, -υς, -ω, -ων	subject of the verb
Genitive	-ας, -εως -ης, -ος, -ου, -ους, -ων	possession; dependence; object of preposition or verb; separation
Dative	-αις, -ῃ, -ι, -οις, -σιν, -ῳ	indirect object of the verb; means or instrument; object of preposition; possession
Accusative	-α, -αν, -ας, -η, -ην, -ν, -ο, -ον, -ος, -ους, -ς	object of the verb or preposition

ὄνομα ἐμοὶ Ἀμφιτρύων, ὁ Διὸς σύλλεκτρος καὶ ὁ πατὴρ Ἡρακλέους. ἐγὼ τὰς Θήβας ἔχω ἔνθα ὁ γηγενὴς στάχυς Σπαρτῶν βλάστει. τοὺς μὲν αὐτῶν Ἄρης σῴζει, ἀριθμὸν ὀλίγον· οἱ δὲ θνῄσκουσιν. οἱ Σπαρτοὶ Κάδμου πόλιν τεκνόουσι παίδων παισί. ἔνθεν ἐκ αὐτῶν γίγνεται Κρέων Μενοικέως παῖς, ἄναξ τῆς χθονός. Κρέων δὲ τῆς Μεγάρας γίγνεται πατήρ· αὐτὴν ὑμεναίοις Καδμεῖοί ποτε λωτῷ συναλαλάζουσιν. τότε εἰς τοὺς δόμους, Θήβας, οὗ κατοικίζω ἐγώ, ὁ κλεινὸς Ἡρακλῆς αὐτὴν ἄγει. ὁ δὲ λείπει Θήβας Μεγάραν τε πενθερούς τε. ὁ παῖς Κυκλωπίαν πόλιν ὀρέγεται οἰκέειν, Τίρυνθα. Ἀργεῖα τείχη φεύγω ἐπεὶ κτείνω Ἠλεκτρύωνα. τὰς δὲ συμφορὰς ἐξευμαρίζει. καὶ πάτραν οἰκέειν θέλει ὥστε καθόδου δίδωσι μισθὸν Εὐρυσθεῖ μέγαν—ἐξημερόειν γαῖαν. εἴτε Ἥρα αὐτὸν δαμάζει κέντροις εἴτε αὐτὸν ἡ μοῖρα ἀναγκάζει παθεῖν. καὶ τοὺς μὲν ἄλλους ἐκμοχθέει πόνους καὶ τὸ δὲ λοίσθιον μετὰ ταῦτα ἔρχεται ἐς Ἅιδου τὸν τρισώματον κύνα ἀνάγειν.

Adverbs and Verbs

*ἄγω do, drive, lead	*θνῄσκω die, perish
ἀναγκάζω compel, force ‘x’ in acc. + inf.	κατοικίζω settle; establish; colonize
ἀνάγω lead or bring up; (mid.) set sail	κτείνω kill
βλάστω bud, sprout, grow	λείπω leave
*γίγνομαι be, be born	*παθεῖν to suffer
δαμάζω overpower, tame, conquer	οἰκέω inhabit, settle; manage, dwell, live
*δίδωμι give; δίκην δίδωμι I pay the penalty; δίδωμι χάριν I give thanks	ὀρέγομαι yearn, desire
ἐκμοχθέω work, toil, struggle; achieve	οὗ where
ἔνθα where	παθεῖν to suffer
ἔνθεν whence, thence; then	συναλαλάζω cry aloud together; greet loudly
ἐξευμαρίζω make light, lighten	σῴζω save
ἐξημερόω tame, reclaim, free	τεκνόω furnish with children, populate, procreate
*ἔρχομαι come, go	*τυγχάνω obtain, meet + gen.
*ἔχω have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well	*φεύγω flee
*θέλω wish, be willing

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns

Νοminative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative	English Equivalent
*ἄλλοι	ἄλλων	ἄλλοις	ἄλλους	others
Ἀμφιτρύων	Ἀμφιτρύωνος	Ἀμφιτρύωνι	Ἀμφιτρύωνα	Amphitryon
ἄναξ	ἄνακτος	ἄνακτι	ἄνακτα	prince, lord, king
Ἀργεῖα	Ἀργείων	Ἀργείοις	Ἀργεῖα	Argive
Ἄρης	Ἄρεως	Ἄρει	Ἄρεα (Ἄρη)	Ares
*ἀριθμός	ἀριθμοῦ	ἀριθμῷ	ἀριθμόν	number
*αὐτή	αὐτῆς	αὐτῇ	αὐτήν	she, her, hers
*αὐτός	αὐτοῦ	αὐτῷ	αὐτόν	he, him, his
γαῖα	γαίας	γαίᾳ	γαῖαν	earth, land
γηγενής	γηγενέος (-οῦς)	γηγενεῖ	γηγενέα (-ῆ)	earth-born
δόμοι	δόμων	δόμοις	δόμους	house, houses
*ἐγώ	ἐμοῦ	ἐμοί	ἐμέ	I, me, mine
Εὐρυσθεύς	Εὐρυσθέως	Εὐρυσθεῖ	Εὐρυσθέα	Eurystheus
*Ζεύς	Διός	Διί	Δία	Zeus
Ἠλεκτρύων	Ἠλεκτρύωνος	Ἠλεκτρύωνι	Ἠλεκτρύωνα	Εlektryon
Ἥρα	Ἥρας	Ἥρᾳ	Ἥραν	Hera
Ἡρακλῆς	Ἡρακλέους	Ἡρακλεῖ	Ἡρακλέα	Herakles
Θῆβαι	Θηβῶν	Θήβαις	Θήβας	Thebes
Καδμεῖοι	Καδμείων	Καδμείοις	Καδμείους	Kadmean
Κάδμος	Κάδμου	Κάδμῳ	Κάδμον	Kadmos
καθόδος	καθόδου	καθόδῳ	καθόδον	return
κέντρα	κέντρων	κέντροις	κέντρα	goad, sting
κλεινός	κλεινοῦ	κλεινῷ	κλεινόν	famous
Κρέων	Κρέοντος	Κρέοντι	Κρέοντα	Kreon
Κυκλωπία	Κυκλωπίας	Κυκλωπίᾳ	Κυκλωπίαν	Kyklopean
κύων	κυνός	κυνί	κύνα	dog
λοίσθιον	λοισθίου	λοισθίῳ	λοίσθιον	last
λωτός	λωτοῦ	λωτῷ	λωτόν	pipe
Μεγάρα	Μεγάρας	Μεγάρᾳ	Μεγάραν	Megara
*μέγας	μεγάλου	μεγάλῳ	μέγαν	big
Μενοικεύς	Μενοικέως	Μενοικεῖ	Μενοικέα	Menoikeus
μισθός	μισθοῦ	μισθῷ	μισθόν	hire; pay, wages
μοῖρα	μοίρας	μοίρᾳ	μοῖραν	fate
*ὀλίγος	ὀλίγου	ὀλίγῳ	ὀλίγον	little, few, small
*ὄνομα	ὀνόματος	ὀνόματι	ὄνομα	name
*παῖς	παιδός	παιδί	παῖδα	child
*πατήρ	πατρός	πατρί	πατέρα	father
πάτρα	πάτρας	πάτρᾳ	πάτραν	fatherland
πενθεροί	πενθερῶν	πενθεροῖς	πενθερούς	marriage-connexion
*πόλις	πόλεως	πόλει	πόλιν	city
πόνοι	πόνων	πόνοις	πόνους	work, toil, suffering
σπαρτοί	σπαρτῶν	σπαρτοῖς	σπαρτούς	sown-men
στάχυς	στάχυος	στάχυι	στάχυν	ear of corn or grain
σύλλεκτρος	συλλέκτρου	συλλέκτρῳ	σύλλεκτρον	partner of the bed
συμφοραί	συμφορῶν	συμφοραῖς	συμφοράς	misfortunes
*ταῦτα	τούτων	τούτοις	ταῦτα	these things
*τείχη	τείχων	τείχεσι (ν)	τείχη	walls
Τίρυνς	Τίρυνθος	Τίρυνθι	Τίρυνθα	Tiryns
τρισώματος	τρισωμάτου	τρισωμάτῳ	τρισώματον	three-bodied
ὑμέναιοι	ὑμεναίων	ὑμεναίοις	ὑμεναίους	wedding-songs
φάος (φῶς)	φάεος (φωτός)	φάει (φωτί)	φάος (φῶς)	light, daylight
χθών	χθονός	χθονί	χθόνα	earth, ground

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.
2. For φάος the contracted forms in parentheses are of the Attic dialect.

Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For adjectives tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

εἴθʼ (εἴτε) Ἥρα αὐτὸν δαμάζει κέντροις εἴτε αὐτὸν ἡ μοῖρα ἀναγκάζει παθεῖν.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

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The Warrior Chorus.1

Module 14 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns

Ζεύς, Διός ὁ Zeus

μήτηρ, μητέρος (μητρός) ἡ mother

μέρος, μέρεος (μέρους) τό share, portion, part; limb; one’s turn

ὄνομα, ὀνόματος τό name

πρᾶγμα, πράγματος τό matter, thing, affair; problem

πλῆθος, πλήθεος (πλήθους) τό great number, multitude; sum

τις, τι (pronoun) anyone, anything; someone, something; (adjective) some, any, a, a certain

τίς, τί (adjective or pronoun) who, what, which, why

χρῆμα, χρήματος τό thing; (pl.) goods, money, property

1. The noun Ζεύς is similar to the third declension noun βασιλεύς.

   N	Ζεύς	(Δεύς < Δηύς)
   A	Δία, ζῆνα	(Δίϝα)
   G	Διός	(Διϝός)
   D	Διΐ	(Διϝί)
   V	Ζεῦ

N	Ζεύς	(Δεύς < Δηύς)
G	Διός	(Διϝός)
D	Διΐ	(Διϝί)
A	Δία, ζῆνα	(Δίϝα)
V	Ζεῦ

Etymology Corner XIV by Dr. E. Del Chrol

Technical Terms 10, Parts of Speech

Nouns, Pronouns, and Cases, Modules 7, 13, 14, 16, 18, 21, 22. One of the strangest etymologies we’ll come across comes from the terminology around what you do with nouns and pronouns to indicate their case or role in a sentence. Strap in.

It starts simply with the Latin noun nomen name, since when you use a noun, you are naming a person, place, thing or idea—Larry, floor, grammar, love are all things identified through a specific name. In Greek the word for noun (and adjective) is also name: ὄνομα. If you want to use a small word in place of (pro-) that name, you use a pronoun, or in Greek ἀντωνυμία, the word ἀντι- in place of the noun, ὄνομα.

What to Study and Do 14. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized ending sets 1 and 2 for first declension nouns ending in –η and -ᾱ and that you can decline these nouns from memory. Review the Case and Function Chart from Module 7. Notice how your understanding of endings and how they create meaning improves as you work your way through the text.

Learning Tip 14: Balance Inside and Outside Views. Strike the right balance between inside views and outside views. An outside view is a baseline. How often do things of this sort happen in situations of this sort? For example, how likely is it for a genitive to show possession? The outside view takes into consideration the overall percentage of genitives that show possession, and comes to realize that this percentage is the highest of all the gentive functions. The inside view considers the factors specific to the particular sentence you are reading. Many times the genitive will show possession but often it will not. The inside view represents the times when it serves a function different from its most common one of possession. For example, in the sentence, they freed them from chains, the noun chains will be in the genitive without a Greek preposition that is equivalent to the English preposition from. We see how the inside view can work differently when we witness an automobile accident when travelling. Due to what Daniel Kahneman calls the heuristic of representativeness, upon seeing an accident we will think that car accidents are much more likely than they actually are. Here, the inside view incorrectly influences our understanding of the outside view. Note the various ways you can apply the idea of balancing outside and inside views to your other courses and to life itself.

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1 http://www.warriorchorus.org/.