1.8: Nouns, Pronouns, and their Case Functions

Nouns

Nouns in Greek are defined just like nouns are in English, but the way they create meaning is different. As in English, Greek nouns (ὀνόματα) refer to people, places, things, and ideas. Greek nouns have endings. English nouns can change form when they show possession as in Jada’s book, where the ’s is added as a suffix and indicates that the book belongs to Jada. English nouns also change form when expressing the plural: two suns, three oxen, four mice. The endings on Greek nouns, as we have seen previously, create the same meanings as English does through form change, word order, and the use of prepositional phrases.

Pronouns

In both languages, pronouns have the same definition: they take the place of nouns. The function of the Greek pronoun (ἀντωνυμία) differs from the English because it creates meaning through case endings much more extensively than the English pronoun does.

Greek Noun Sets 1–10

In Greek there are three noun declensions: first, second, and third. In this text, the third declension, noun sets 9 and 10, is taught first (Module 13) because it offers the most complexity. Once you understand the third declension, it is easier for you to learn the remaining two declensions. Learning the third declension first also reinforces why the stem, the base to which endings are attached, is taken from the genitive singular. Also by learning the third declension before the first (noun sets 1–6) and the second (noun sets 7 and 8), you will be less inclined to match or rhyme noun and adjective endings when you modify a noun with an adjective.

Since each Greek noun takes only one set of endings, this text numbers the endings by sets 1–10. Each numbered set has ten endings. The aim in numbering them is to make clear that each noun has only one set of endings. The numbers are also a helpful way to refer to the endings when identifying nouns and discussing things like case and function.

What follows explains what is meant by a noun’s gender, number, and case.

Gender is a grammatical category and not identical with a noun’s sex. Often, however, words that refer to living beings of the male sex are masculine in gender; words that refer to living beings of the female sex are feminine in gender. In Greek non-living things can be masculine, feminine, or neuter (neither masculine nor feminine). Since noun gender is often random, each noun’s gender must be memorized.

Number is singular (one) or plural (more than one).

The cases in English are three: subjective, objective, possessive. In Greek they are five: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and vocative, or, ordered differently, nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative. Each case has certain specific functions, indicating the meaning of each noun in relation to other words in the sentence.

Remember that, in Greek, a noun’s case ending determines its meaning in the sentence.

The Five Cases

In what follows you learn some of the case functions of Greek nouns. For a list of all the case functions covered in Parts I and II of the 21st-Century series, see the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I. In this Module and in Appendix I, the case functions are placed in order of frequency of occurrence, relative to each other. And so a case’s first function is the one you will encounter most often when reading authentic texts. The case functions found below were chosen both on the basis of frequency and because they illustrate an important function of each case. This latter is particularly true of the function of separation without a preposition for the genitive case, which is not that frequent in occurrence. Most of the noun functions below use case endings to create meaning. A few of the noun functions create meaning through case ending or a prepositional phrase. Remember that the basic building blocks for sentences in English are prepositional phrases and word order. In Greek, the basic building blocks are word endings, prepositional phrases, and word order. The preposition and its object are presented in detail in Module 8. If you are eager and wish to better your understanding of the preposition and its object in English now, you can follow the links below:

Khan Academy Prepositional Phrases1

Quia Practice with Prepositions.2

The Nominative Case

The nominative has two main functions.

Function 1, Subject (Smyth’s Greek Grammar 938 and Cambridge Grammar of Classical Greek 30.2, hitherto abbreviated to as SGG and CGCG). The nominative case’s most frequent function is to mark a subject of the verb.

In this sentence,

ὁ ἀδελφὸς (the brother) φέρει (carries) λίθους (stones),

The brother carries stones,

brother is the subject. The verb is carries. Stones is the direct object. The ending -ος tells us that the noun, ἀδελφός, is nominative in case. Since the main function of the nominative case is as a subject, the ending -ος indicates that brother serves this function in the sentence.

Function 2, Predicate Nominative (SGG 939; CGCG 30.3). A second common function of the nominative case is as a predicate nominative. Predicate nominatives occur when there is a linking verb that connects the subject to a noun or a pronoun that gives information about the subject. The verb is is the most common linking verb.

This sentence,

ὁ Ὅμηρός (Homer) ἐστι (is) ποιητής (a poet),

Homer is a poet,

includes two nouns in the nominative case, Ὅμηρος and ποιητής. The case endings -ος and -ης are both nominative. One noun is the subject of the verb and the other is a predicate nominative. Word order and context indicate that Ὅμηρος is the subject and ποιητής is the predicate nominative: Homer (nominative, subject) is (verb) a poet (predicate nominative).

Though adjectives have yet to be introduced, it is helpful to compare and to contrast the predicate nominative with the predicate adjective (SGG 910; CGCG 30.3). Adjectives, as you will learn soon, agree in gender, case, and number with the nouns they modify. The difference between a predicate nominative and a predicate adjective is that the predicate nominative is a function for nouns and the predicate adjective is a function for adjectives.

This sentence,

ὁ Ὅμηρός (Homer) ἐστι (is) ἀγαθός (good),

Homer is good,

includes one noun in the nominative case, Ὅμηρος, and one adjective, ἀγαθός, in the nominative case. Each word has the nominative case ending -ος. Word order and context indicate that Ὅμηρος is the subject of the verb and ἀγαθός is the predicate adjective. If we change the word order of the sentence,

ἀγαθός ἐστι ὁ Ὅμηρος,

good is Homer,

the meaning remains the same and the function of the noun as subject and of the adjective as predicate adjective remain the same, good (predicate adjective) is (verb) Homer (nominative, subject). Module 9 presents more information on linking verbs in English and in Greek. If you are eager to better your understanding of linking verbs in English now, follow the links below:

Khan Academy Linking Verbs3

Quia Practice with Linking Verbs. 4

The Genitive Case

The genitive case has four commonly occurring functions.

Function 1, Genitive of Possession (SGG 1297; CGCG 30.28). The genitive of possession indicates that one noun owns another.

In this example,

τὸ βιβλίον τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ,

the book of the brother or the brother’s book,

the brother possesses the book. In Greek there is no equivalent of the preposition of. Rather the genitive case ending, -ου, on the noun ἀδελφοῦ brother, indicates ownership of the noun βιβλίον book. In Greek, case endings, here –ου, will determine how we assign meaning to nouns when we translate them into English. In English the preposition of or the apostrophe followed by s, ’s, creates ownership, informing us that the brother possesses the book. In Greek we call this function a genitive of possession.

Function 2, Genitive of Dependence (SGG 1290; CGCG 30.28). The genitive of dependence indicates a relationship between two nouns that does not involve ownership where the noun in the genitive case further defines a second noun.

In this example,

δῶρα χρυσοῦ,

gifts of gold,

the two nouns, δῶρα χρυσοῦ, work together to form the phrase, δῶρα χρυσοῦ gifts of gold.

In English, word order and the preposition of work together so that we understand that gifts and of gold create a meaningful phrase. Again, in Greek there is no equivalent of the English preposition of. Rather the genitive case ending, -ου, indicates that the noun χρυσοῦ gold gives defining information about a second noun δῶρα. We call this function the genitive of dependence.

Function 3, Partitive Genitive (SGG 1306; CGCG 30.25). The partitive genitive is a third commonly occurring function of the genitive case. The partitive genitive expresses the idea of the greater whole of the smaller part.

In this example,

οὐδεὶς τῶν Ἑλλήνων,

no one of the Greeks,

the noun τῶν Ἑλλήνων the Greeks with its ending in the genitive case, -ων, gives more information about the second noun, οὐδείς no one. The two together form a phrase οὐδεὶς τῶν Ἑλλήνων no one of the Greeks. οὐδείς no one is the smaller part of the greater whole, τῶν Ἑλλήνων the Greeks.

In English word order and the preposition of work together so that we understand that no one and of the Greeks create a meaningful phrase. Again in Greek there is no equivalent of the English preposition of. Rather the genitive case ending, -ων, indicates that the noun τῶν Ἑλλήνων the Greeks gives defining information about the noun οὐδείς no one. We call this function a partitive genitive.

Function 4, Genitive of Separation (SGG 1392; CGCG 30.34). A fourth function of the genitive is to express the idea of separation. Though the genitive of separation without a preposition does not occur frequently, it does express an important conceptual function of the genitive case.

In the sentence,

λύουσι (they free) τοὺς Ἑλλήνους (Greeks) δεσμῶν (fetters),

they free the Greeks from fetters,

they is the subject. Free is the verb. The Greeks is the direct object. From fetters expresses the idea of separating someone from some thing. In English separation is expressed by the prepositional phrase from fetters. In Greek there is no prepositional phrase. Rather Greek expresses separation by placing the noun δεσμῶν, fetters, in the genitive case. The ending -ων tells us that the noun δεσμῶν fetters is genitive. The genitive case and context work together to indicate the meaning of separation that the noun has in the sentence.

With the genitive of separation, the idea of motion is often present. Compare and contrast these two sentences,

σὺ (you) βάθρων (steps) ἵστης (get up),

and

σὺ (you) ἐκ (from) βάθρων (steps) ἵστης (get up),

You get up from the steps.

In both sentences, you is the subject and get up is the verb. In the first sentence, the idea of separation, from the steps, is expressed by the genitive case ending, -ων, on the noun βάθρων steps. No preposition is present. In the second sentence, the prepositional phrase, ἐκ βάθρων from the steps, expresses separation just as the prepositional phrase from the steps does in English. Note that in authetic texts, the genitive of separation without a preposition does not occur as frequently as does separation with a preposition.

In the above you have learned that Greek creates meaning through case endings and English creates the same meaning by using prepositional phrases. You have also learned that Greek and English can use prepositional phrases as building blocks to create the same meaning. When translating the genitive case into English, remember that you will often have to supply the prepositions of or from.

The Dative Case

The dative case has four main functions.

Function 1, Indirect Object (SGG 1457 and 1469; CGCG 30.37). A frequently occurring function of the dative case is as an indirect object. An indirect object indirectly receives the action of a verb or is indirectly involved in a verb’s action.

In the English sentence,

she gives money to him,

She is the subject; gives is the verb; and money is the direct object. To him is the indirect object and is indirectly involved in the action. To him is indirectly involved because it receives the money. It is the money that she gives, not the him.

Consider this sentence,

δίδωσι (he gives) τό βιβλίον (book) τῷ ἀδελφῷ (brother),

he gives the book to the brother.

He is the subject. Gives is the verb. Book is the direct object—it directly receives the action of the verb. To the brother is the indirect object and indirectly receives the action of the verb.

In English, the indirect object is expressed by the prepositional phrase to the brother. In Greek, the case ending -ῳ tells us that the noun ἀδελφῷ brother is in the dative. The case ending -ῳ and context work together to create the noun’s meaning in the sentence.

Consider two more examples,

δεικνύουσιν (they show) ἀσπίδα (a shield) τῷ ἀδελφῷ (brother),

they show a shield to the brother,

and

γράμματα (a letter) αὐτῷ (him) ἐκόμιζον (I bring),

I bring a letter for him.

In the first sentence they is the subject; show is the verb; a shield is the direct object, directly receiving the action of the verb. Το the brother is the indirect object and indirectly receives the action of the verb. In the second sentence, I is the subject; bring is the verb; letter is the direct object; and for him is the indirect object. English creates the meaning of the indirect object through the prepositional phrases, to the brother and for him. In Greek the ending -ῳ tells us that each noun, ἀδελφῷ brother and αὐτῷ him, is in the dative case. The dative case and context work together to create the meaning of the indirect object in the Greek sentences.

Finally compare and contrast these two sentences,

ταῦτα (these things) αὐτῇ (her) λέγω (I say)

and

ταῦτα (these things) πρὸς (to) αὐτὴν (her) λέγω (I say).

I say these things to her.

In both sentences I is the subject and say is the verb. These things is the direct object and to her is the indirect object. In the first the indirect object is expressed by the ending -ῇ of the dative case of the pronoun αὐτῇ her. In the second the indirect object is expressed by the prepositional phrase, πρὸς αὐτήν to her, just as the prepositional phrase to her does in English.

Function 2, Dative of Means or Instrument (SGG 1503; CGCG 30.43–44). Another frequently occurring function of the dative case is as means or instrument.

In the sentence,

βάλλει (he hits) με (me) πέτρῳ (rock),

he hits me with a rock,

He is the subject. Hits is the verb. Me is the direct object, directly receiving the action of the verb. The English prepositional phrase with a rock translates the meaning of the Greek dative of means or instrument, informing us of the means or instrument by which the action of the verb happens. English creates this same meaning through the prepositional phrase with a rock. In Greek, the case ending -ῳ tells us that the noun πέτρῳ rock is in the dative. The ending -ῳ and context create the meaning of means or instrument for the noun, πέτρῳ rock. English builds meaning with prepositional phrases and Greek does the same through a mixture of case endings and prepositional phrases.

Consider this sentence,

φεύγει εἰς τὴν γῆν νηί,

she flees to the land by ship.

She is the subject. Flees is the verb. To the land (εἰς τὴν γῆν) is a prepositional phrase in both languages. In Greek the case ending -ι tells us that the noun νηί ship is dative. The ending -ι and context create the meaning of means or instrument for the noun νηί ship. In English the prepositional phrase by ship creates the same meaning as does the dative case of the Greek noun νηί ship. Again we see that English creates meaning with prepositional phrases and Greek does the same through case endings.

Function 3, Dative of Possession (SGG 1476; CGCG 30.41). The dative of possession expresses ownership of one noun over another.

Like the genitive case, the dative case may express ownership, having the same function as the genitive. Consider these two examples,

τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ (the brother) υἱός (son),

the brother’s son or the son of the brother,

and

τῷ ἀδελφῷ (the brother) υἱός (son),

the brother’s son or the son of the brother.

In each sentence, case ending -ου or -ῳ and context work together to create the meaning of ownership between the two nouns.

In these examples,

Δαρείου (Dareios) ἡ γνώμη (judgment)

Dareios’ judgment or the judgment of Dareios;

and

Δαρείῳ (Dareios) ἡ γνώμη (judgment)

Dareios’ judgment or the judgment of Dareios,

the same explanation as given above applies: the case ending -ου or -ῳ and context work together to create the meaning of ownership between the two nouns. Though less frequent than the genitive of possession, the dative of possession occcurs in places where the genitive does also.

When a linking verb, often the verb to be (εἶναι), is used in sentences like these,

τῷ Ὁμήρῳ (Homer) ἐστὶ (is) ναῦς (ship),

there is a ship to Homer (Homer has a ship),

and

τῷ Ὁμήρῳ (Homer) ἐστὶ (is) κύων (dog),

there is a dog to Homer (Homer has a dog),

then the dative case, more typically than the genitive, expresses possession. In each case ending, -ῳ, and context work together to create the meaning of ownership between the two nouns.

English shows ownership through an apostrophe followed by s (the brother’s son) and through a prepositional phrase using of or to (the son of the brother or the son to the brother). Greek expresses the same meaning through the genitive or dative case endings.

Function 4, Dative of Place Where (SGG 1530; CGCG 30.47). The fourth most frequently occurring function of the dative case expresses place where: she lies on the ground; or they fight at Marathon.

When expressing place where in poetry Greek may use the dative case without a preposition,

γῇ (ground) κεῖται (she lies),

she lies on the ground.

In prose Greek typically uses a preposition, often ἐν, followed by the noun in the dative case. In these two examples,

ἐν (on) γῇ (ground) κεῖται (she lies),

she lies on the ground,

and

ἐν (in) τῷ νηῷ (the temple) ὁ στρατηγὸς (the general) ἦν (was),

the general was in the temple,

the endings -ῃ and -ῳ tell us that the nouns γῇ and νηῷ are in the dative case. The preposition followed by the noun in the dative case work together to create a prepositional phrase that expresses place where.

With some place names Greek uses the dative without a preposition,

πολεμέουσι (they fight) Μαραθῶνι (at Marathon),

they fight at Marathon.

The endings -ι tells us that the noun, Μαραθῶνι, is in the dative case. The noun in the dative case by itself, commonly called the locative, or with a preposition express the idea of place where.

In the case of place where, both English and Greek may create the same meaning through prepositional phrases. Greek often uses the preposition ἐν followed by a noun in the dative case. English typically uses the prepositions in, at, or on followed by a noun in the objective case. As we saw in the previous unit, nouns that are translated with prepositions create prepositional phrases and are called the objects of the preposition.

The Accusative Case

The accusative case has two main functions.

Function 1, Direct Object (SGG 1553; CGCG 30.8). The main function of the accusative case is as a direct object.

For example in the sentence,

δίδωσι (he gives) τό βιβλίον (book) Ὁμήρῳ (Homer),

he gives the book to Homer.

He is the subject. Gives is the verb. The book is the direct object and directly receives the action of the verb. The case ending -ον tells us that the noun βιβλίον book is in the accusative case. Ὁμήρῳ to Homer is in the dative case, indicated by the dative case ending -ῳ and is the indirect object, indirectly receiving the action of the verb.

Consider this sentence,

ποίει (he holds) ὁρτὴν (a festival) Διονύσῳ (Dionysos),

he holds a festival for Dionysos.

He is the subject. Holds is the verb. Festival is the direct object and directly receives the action of the verb. The ending -ην indicates that ὁρτήν festival is accusative. Διονύσῳ Dionysos is in the dative case, indicated by the dative case ending -ῳ and is the indirect object, indirectly receiving the action of the verb.

Note that English uses word order to indicate a subject of the verb and direct object. In the sentences,

the man sees the woman,

and

the woman sees the man,

word order determines who performs the verb’s action and who receives it. In these examples,

ὁ ἀνὴρ (the man, nominative subject) τὴν γυναῖκα (the woman, accusative direct object) ὁράει (sees),

the man sees the woman,

and

ἡ γυνὴ (the woman, nominative subject) τὸν ἄνδρα (the man, accusative direct object) ὁράει (sees),

the woman sees the man,

case ending, not word order, communicates who performs the verb’s action and who receives it.

Function 2, Extent of Space and Duration of Time (SGG 1580; CGCG 30.15–16). The accusative case expresses the ideas of extent of space or duration of time.

In the sentence,

they march for five miles,

They is the subject. March is the verb. For five miles expresses the idea of extent of space.

Consider the similar Greek sentence,

ἐλαύνουσι (they march) πέντε (five) στάδια (stades),

they march for five stades.

Greek creates the meaning of extent of space by placing στάδια stades in the accusative case. The ending -α of the noun στάδια stades indicates that στάδια stades is in the accusative case. Context and case work together to communicate to the reader the meaning extent of space. English creates the same meaning through the prepositional phrase for five stades (a stade, by the way, is equivalent to about 200 meters or 600 feet).

Greek uses the accusative case to express duration of time. In this sentence,

ἐλαύνουσι (they march) πέντε (five) ἡμέρας (days),

they march for five days,

They is the subject. March is the verb. In English the prepositional phrase for five days expresses the idea of duration of time. Greek expresses this same idea by placing the noun ἡμέρας days in the accusative case. The case ending -ας tells us that the noun is in the accusative. Context and case ending work together to indicate that πέντε ἡμέρας has the meaning duration of time.

The Vocative Case

The vocative case has one function.

Function 1, Direct Address (SGG 1283; CGCG 30.55). Greek uses the vocative when one person is directly addressing another. In these sentences,

Ὅμηρε (Homer), πῶς (how) οἰκήσεις (will you live),

and

ὦ Ὅμηρε (Homer), πῶς (how) οἰκήσεις (will you live),

Homer, how will you live?,

the ending -ε tells us that the noun, Ὅμηρε, is in the vocative case. The ending -ε and context work together to express the meaning, direct address. In the second sentence, the interjection ὦ, the ending –ε, and context work together to express the meaning, direct address. English creates direct address in writing by setting the person addressed off from the rest of the sentence with one or two commas. In speaking, English uses pause and intonation to indicate direct address.

Case and Function Chart

Since English uses prepositions in many situations where Greek does not, when translating into English you often need to supply prepositions not present in Greek. The chart below tells you the case; the function of the case; and what preposition you need to supply in English when there is no preposition present in Greek. None indicates that there is no preposition to supply when translating from Greek into English. None (ἐκ, ἀπό) indicates that there is no additional preposition to supply when translating from Greek into English and gives the preposition that is commonly present in ancient Greek.

Also noted below is that nouns and pronouns in the genitive, dative, and accusative cases can all serve as objects of a preposition. Some prepositions take their objects in only one case. Other prepositions may have their objects in two or in all three cases. Prepositions are covered in Module 8.

CASE	FUNCTION	PREPOSITION
Nominative	1. Subject: she eats.	none
	2. Predicate Nominative: he is a doctor.	none

Genitive	1. Possession: the horse of Sally.	of
	2. Dependence: a bag of gold.	of
	3. Partitive: some of the Greeks.	of
	4. Separation: she frees us from prison.	from, away from
	5. Object of Preposition (often indicating motion away from): she departed from the house.	none (ἐκ, ἀπό)

Dative	1. Indirect Object: she gives a book to Sara; he made a coat for Jim.	to, for
	2. Means or Instrument: he kills the man with a sword; she travels by ship.	by, with
	3. Dative of Possession: a dog to Sara OR the dog of Sara OR Sara’s dog.	to, of
	4. Place Where (often with a preposition): he fights at Marathon; she sits on the rock.	none (ἐν) or in, on, at
	5. Object of Preposition (often shows place where): with Homer; in the temple	none

Accusative	1. Direct Object: she gives me an apple.	none
	2. Extent of Space: she walks for 3 miles.	for
	3. Duration of Time: he works for 3 hours.	for
	4. Object of Preposition (often shows motion toward): to Homer; to the sea.	none (πρός, εἰς)

Vocative	1. Direct Address: Sally, come here.	none

The above are all case functions for nouns and pronouns.

Apposition of Nouns and Pronouns

A common grammatical occurrence that happens in all cases of nouns and pronouns is apposition. Apposition is defined as an instance in a sentence when two nouns or two pronouns are in the same case referring to the same person or thing. The second noun or pronoun renames the first. Apposition can happen to a noun in any case and the second noun matches the case of the first. Consider the following examples. In each, the main noun is bolded and the noun in apposition is underlined.

Nominative

ἐγὼ ταῦτα τῷ Ὁμήρῳ, ποιητής, δίδωμι.

I, a poet, give these things to Homer.

Genitive

τὸ βιβλίον τοῦ Ὁμήρου, ποιητοῦ, σοὶ δίδωμι.

I give to you the book of Homer, a poet.

Dative

ἐγὼ ταῦτα τῷ Ὁμήρῳ, ποιητῇ, δίδωμι.

I give these things to Homer, a poet.

Αccusative

ὁράει τὸν Ὅμηρον ποιητήν.

She sees Homer, a poet.

Vocative

ὦ βασιλεῦ Κῦρε, ἔλθε.

King Kyros, come.

The important items to note are that the two nouns refer to the same person or thing and each has the same case. Apposition occurs frequently in this textbook and in the authentic texts you are preparing to read.

Parsing

Parsing English and Greek sentences enables you to understand what you have memorized, using analysis and logic. English has three cases: subjective for subjects; objective for objects; possessive for ownership. In parsing you identify the words in a sentence and give their case and function. In the sentence,

you stretch the frozen moments with your fear

you is in the subjective case and is the subject. Stretch is the verb. The and frozen are adjectives modifying the noun moments. Moments is in the objective case and is the direct object of stretch. With is a preposition. Your is a possessive adjective modifying the noun fear. Fear is in the objective case and is the object of the preposition with.

Parsing solidifies your understanding of the key conceptual system this book presents. It turns memorization into understanding. If you struggle with this aspect of the course, do not stress. Struggling with understanding is a necessary part of learning. Persist in your struggles and eventually you will come to understand language itself in a novel way, exercising even greater ability to communicate effectively.

Lucian of Samosota c. 125 CE. Born on the banks of the upper Euphrates River, Lucian was an Assyrian who wrote in ancient Greek but whose native language was probably Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic. What we know of Lucian comes from his own works. He was a satirist and rhetorician. He ridiculed hypocrisy, pedantry, religion, and superstition. Educated in Ionia, he lived in Athens for approximately 10 years during which time it is surmised that he wrote many of his works. Of the over 80 writings attributed to him, this textbook offers excerpts from A True Story, Ἀληθῆ διηγήματα; The Lover of Lies, Φιλοψευδής; and The Ass, ὁ Ὄνος, though it is not certain whether Lucian is the author of this last work. In his own day Lucian was very popular. Today his writings continue to exert influence.

Practice Parsing in English. For this translation of an excerpt from Lucian’s The Ass, ὁ Ὄνος, use the Case and Function Chart to tell these six things (1) what case each noun would have in Greek; (2) what function each case has; (3) where Greek would use the preposition ἐκ or παρά + the genitive; ἐν + the dative; and εἰς + the accusative; (4) what words are verbs; (5) what words are adverbs; and (6) what words are conjunctions. Answers are found in the Answer Key.

My owner discovered a profit of many drachmae.
She spoke to my owner and promised payment of silver to him.
She lit a lamp with fire and it burned for three hours.
She pours fragrant oil from a bottle of alabaster and rubs her arm with it.
On the day of the spectacle we bring him and one of the women to the theater.
The bed was large and adorned with gold.
They placed me in the middle of the theater and everyone shouted and clapped.
I went to Thessaly because there was to me a personal matter there.
I carried to Thessaly a letter from my father for Hipparkhos. He lived there and was very miserly.
Loukios, my home, is small but generous. Treat it kindly.

Euripides of Athens, Εὐριπίδης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 480–406 BCE. An innovator who did not gain wide acceptance until after his death, Euripides wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He introduced comedy into tragedy and presented the heroes and heroines of his plays as everyday people. He was a proponent of the new music, which broke with tradition and is one feature of his work that shocked some of his contemporaries. In several plays (Helen, Ion, Iphigeneia in Tauris), he created tragicomic plots that foreshadowed the so-called New Comedy. He is said to have composed his tragedies in a cave on the island of Salamis, to have been solitary and surly, and to have been prosecuted by Kleon for impiety. In support of this charge, Diogenes Laertius says that Protagoras first read his skeptical work on the gods at Euripides’ house, in which he argued that it did not matter whether the gods existed—he was an agnostic; that there were two sides to every question, each opposed to the other; that the soul was nothing apart from the senses; that everything is true; that all values were relative; and that “man is the measure of all things, of things that are that they are, and of things that are not that they are not.” Euripides’ unpopularity probably caused him to accept an invitation to the court of Arkhelaos in Makedonia in c. 408 B.C., where about two years later he died. He wrote ninety-two plays and had four victories in the Athenian annual dramatic competition and festival in honor of Dionysos. Nineteen of his plays survive, more than any other tragedian. Without them our view of tragedy would be more rigid, dogmatic, and inaccurate. In upcoming modules, this textbook offers adapted selections from Euripides’ Alkestis, Bakkhai, Helen, Herakles, Iphigeneia in Tauris, and Medea.

Module 7 Practice Reading Aloud. Practice reading this excerpt from Euripides’ Alkestis. Read the excerpt a few times, paying attention to the sound each syllable makes and trying to hear the rhythm of the words.

Ἄλκηστις
	Ἅλιε καὶ φάος ἁμέρας,
245	οὐράνιαί τε δῖναι νεφέλας δρομαίου
Ἄδμητος
	ὁρᾷ σὲ κἀμέ, δύο κακῶς πεπραγότας,
	οὐδὲν θεοὺς δράσαντας ἀνθ’ ὅτου θανῇ.
Ἄλκηστις
	γαῖά τε καὶ μελάθρων στέγαι
	νυμφίδιοί τε κοῖ-
		ται πατρίας Ἰωλκοῦ.
Ἄδμητος
250	ἔπαιρε σαυτήν, ὦ τάλαινα, μὴ προδῷς·
	λίσσου δὲ τοὺς κρατοῦντας οἰκτῖραι θεούς.
Ἄλκηστις
	ὁρῶ δίκωπον, ὁρῶ σκάφος ἐν
	λίμνᾳ· νεκύων δὲ πορθμεὺς
	ἔχων χέρ’ ἐπὶ κοντῷ, Χάρων
255	μ’ ἤδη καλεῖ· Τί μέλλεις;
	ἐπείγου· σὺ κατείργεις. τάδε τοί με
		σπερχόμενος ταχύνει.
Ἄδμητος
	οἴμοι· πικράν γε τήνδε μοι ναυκληρίαν
	ἔλεξας. ὦ δύσδαιμον, οἷα πάσχομεν.

Verse Translation

Alkestis
	Sun and light of day,
	Swirling clouds above
Admetos
	Who gaze at you and me, we suffer,
	Yet did the gods no wrong that merits death.
Alkestis
	Land and house and childhood bed,
		Iolkos, once my home.
Admetos
	Arise, now up, poor dear, dare not betray me.
	Beseech the powerful gods to pity you.
Alkestis
	Look, I see oars; Look, I see a ship
	Anchored there at port and see a ferryman,
	Hands on punt. He carries souls away.
	Kharon calls me, Ready? Why delay?
	Hurry. You detain me. Urging me on, he
		Presses me to go.
Admetos
	Alas, this ship you call by name pains me.
	Oh ill of fate, what sufferings must we endure.

To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel’s expert reading with a pitch accent, follow the link below:

Alkestis 244–259.5

Etymology Corner VII by Dr. E. Del Chrol

Technical Terms 3

Orthography, Module 1. Previously we learned that orthography refers to the correct way of writing a word. In the orthography section of Module 1, there are three accents. The rising pitch is the acute (ὀξύς) accent, which comes from the Latin acutus sharp; grave (βαρύς) is an neutral accent, marking the end of a word’s pitch rise (reread Stefan Hagel on pitch accent, if you need a refresher) from the Latin gravis heavy; and the one that flexes around, that is, bends up then down, is the circumflex (περισπώμενος) accent, from the Latin circum- around and flectere to bend. As noted, the accents originally denoted musical pitch. This makes etymological sense, since accent comes from the Latin prefix ad- towards and the Latin verb cantare to sing, meaning you are adding musicality to prose. When we run across the word prosody, we note that it is derived from the original Greek prefix προς- towards and noun ᾠδή song, the same two words that are used to build the word accent.

What to Study and Do 7. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have learned that case ending determines meaning, that you know how to use the Case and Function Chart when reading and translating, and that you understand what apposition is. It is a good idea to review the information in the Case and Function Chart a couple of times a week.

Learning Tip 7: Create a Linked Story. This textbook presents you with a variety of strategies for remembering information. These strategies can be used to memorize essential information that you need for this course, for life, or for any random information that you need or want to remember. The strategies require you to use your imagination. Imagination always beats your will to remember.

Try this experiment. Use your willpower to remember these 12 words:

fillmore, pierce, buchanan, lincoln, johnson, grant, hayes, garfield, arthur, cleveland, harrison, cleveland.

Spend a minute willing yourself to remember the words in order. After one minute, write down as many of the words as you can in order and from memory. Most people can remember about four or five of the words.

Next, imagine that you are standing at your kitchen sink and you fill more water into a pitcher than it can hold. You pierce the pitcher with a long needle and watch as the water pours out of the hole and down the drain. Out of the drain a shiny new cannon rises and situates itself on your countertop. Make the scene come alive in your mind. The new cannon shoots links of chain at an inn across the street from your house. You run to the inn to warn the people inside. Upon entering the inn, you have an urgent need to use the john. As you use the john, you call your son. You ask your son if he will grant you one wish. He says yes. You ask him to take some freshly harvested hay to a far field where King Arthur awaits, seated on his horse. Your son cleaves to the hay as he picks it up from the land. He gets in a truck driven by a hairy son and once again cleaves tightly to the hay he grabbed from the land. Spend a minute using your imagination to place the images into your mind, visualizing the events happening in real time. Use as many senses as you can when you replay the events in your mind. You should find that after one minute or less you are able to remember all the words in order and with ease. You should also find that you can recite the list forewards and backwards. Congratulate yourself on having memorized US presidents 13–24. Try using a similar strategy for remembering the first twelve US presidents. If you find you need some assistance, look at the Answer Key for one possible solution. To watch Yanjaa, a super-memorizer, use a similar strategy to remember random items in a magazine, follow this link: