Use Text Features to Support Comprehending a Reading

1. Title

The purpose of a title is to name a written work.  Titles frequently identify the topic (subject matter) of a reading, and may give additional clues as to a text's main idea or meaning.

All works, whether short or long, typically have titles, and we don't want to skip over them, as they may help us determine whether or not a reading will be useful.  They may also help us focus on our purpose for reading.

The title of this resource is "Use Text Features to Support Comprehending a Reading." What does this title tell you about what you are currently learning?

 2. Title Pages

Books contain title pages: one of the earliest pages after opening the cover, a title page restates the title, provides the name of the author(s) and gives other publication information, such as the name of the publisher and the date of publication.

Publication dates can be particularly important, depending on the topic of the reading, to ensure the subject matter is up to date.  Scholarly articles do not contain title pages, but you can usually find the name of the publishing journal, and the date of publication, on the first page of the article. 

Grab a textbook or other written work.  Are you able to locate the publisher and the date of publication?  This information is also needed when you have to cite your sources, a skill you learn in basic English and research coursework.

3. Table of Contents

The table of contents gives the titles of chapters or other included materials along with the page that each selection begins on.  You'll find this text feature near the beginning of a printed or electronic textbook, anthology, or other lengthy type of reading.

The table of contents is helpful for locating particular information based on titles. For example, you might check out an edited volume from the library for a research paper, and the titles of the included works might let you know that some of them will probably be more helpful in providing usable information than others, saving you time as you decide how to try to review the material.

4. Index

Indexes are similar to tables of content in that they provide page numbers useful for locating specific information.  Unlike the table of contents, you will find the index at the end of a book or the back of a document.  Indexes are much more detailed than a table of contents; you can look up any important concept addressed by the text in the alphabetized list of terms.

Do any texts in your study area contain indexes?  If so, spend some time glancing through one to see how you can easily figure out where to find specific information about a topic within a text.  Note that some topics are addressed on more than one page. If you don't have access to an index right now, the next time you must use a textbook for a course, remember to check to see if your book includes one of these features in the back.

5. Glossary

If you think back to our earlier work with vocabulary acquisition, a glossary is another resource you can use to determine the meaning of an unknown word.  Similar to a dictionary, glossaries are included in some books or even articles to provide the definitions of challenging vocabulary, so that you can just check the glossary without having to rely on context clues or morphemes, or stop what you are doing to consult a dictionary.

Consulting a glossary may break up your flow as you momentarily interrupt your reading, but unlike dictionaries, you don't have to abandon your book or website entirely, as these resources are located within the same text that the unknown word is presented.  Some glossaries provide the meanings of unknown words in the beginning, so you may preview vocabulary before starting to read.  Many glossaries are found at the end of a text or document, though, so that you only need to use them to look up a word if you were confused.

6. Headings

Headings are placed above portions of text to let you know what this particular section of a reading will be about:  Think of them as titles for a smaller section of a longer text.  A chapter may utilize various headings to break the text into smaller sections, helping to further organize a reading by a sub-topic related back to the overall topic a chapter addresses.  Sometimes sections of text found under headings are broken down even further, with subheadings grouping important information pertaining back to the heading.  Headings and subheadings provide important cues for us as readers--if something is important enough to have its own heading, we need to pay attention! An author would not have titled a smaller section of text if there were not a significant point to be made related back to that heading or subheading.

The blue font reading "Text Features" located near the top of the page is an example of a heading.  The numbered list of text features can be considered subheadings.  Note, authors often use larger font, different colors, or other changes (such as bold or italics) to a heading or subheading's appearance to give us a visual cue that we are encountering a new section of text and a new important idea.

7. Photograph, Illustration, or Image

Visual aids such as photographs, illustrations, and other types of images supplement written material and add visual interest and/or clarification to help further readers' understandings of the subject matter.  These visual aids are common across many types of texts, including textbooks, websites, newspapers, magazines, and more.

Think about the last time the presence of a photograph, illustration or other image (such as a computer generated visual, sonogram or other medical image, painting, or other visual) actually helped you further understand the topic you were reading about.  Some visuals are mainly included for their decorative purpose, but much of the time, these elements also increase our ability to comprehend what we are reading about.  Check captions, the text beneath a visual, for information about an image.

8. Graphs

The purpose of graphs is to visually display information.  They are especially useful for comparisons.

Common types of graphs include line graphs or bar graphs. Presenting information in a graph allows a reader to quickly make comparisons or see a change in data over time.  Graphs are more efficient for writers, because to communicate the same information in written form only would take a writer much longer to put everything in paragraph form, and it would not be as easy for readers to draw conclusions about the information.  Graphs are an example of a text feature that may not only supplement written material, but provide important information that is actually not located elsewhere in a document.

9. Tables

Like graphs, tables are more efficient ways to display information. You will often find tables in research studies and textbooks.  They much more easily display numerical data than prose writing would be able to communicate the same information.

Don't skip over tables if a text you are reading contains one.  Like graphs, tables are likely to include information that is not found elsewhere in a text.  Captions under Tables and Graphs typically identify the visual according to type:  for example, a caption may begin Table 1, Table 2.  Graphs are sometimes referred to as "Figures" in a caption.  This term can include graphs and other visuals such as diagrams or maps (discussed below) or previously mentioned visual aids.

10. Diagram

A diagram is a special illustration or other type of visual that includes labels to show the features of something, or to demonstrate a process.

Diagrams are especially common in readings assigned pertaining to science.  You may recall seeing a human skeleton with different bones labeled, so that you can learn the names of the different parts of the skeleton. Venn Diagrams are a particular type of diagram that shows both commonalities and differences, with overlapping circles representing traits that are the same across groups, and the outer, independent portions of the circles demonstrating unique characteristics.

11. Maps

The purpose of maps is to understand a location.  You probably are familiar with Google Maps or another navigation system that you use when you are in an unfamiliar area.  Maps in texts can serve the same singular purpose--to know the geography/location of a particular place--or they can also depict information about that place.  For example, you might come across a map showing you how Americans voted in a recent presidential election, with states that went to one candidate in one color, and states who supported a different candidate in another color. As another example, during the Covid-19 pandemic, maps were used to track cases and identify areas where the virus was spreading heavily throughout populations.

A map's legend or key is typically found in a box within or close to the map, and will offer valuable information about how to correctly read the information presented on the map, such as what particular colors or lines mean.  A map may also include symbols, and if so, the meanings of those icons are given in the legend or key.

12. Bullet Points

Bullet points are used to make listed information easier to view.

Here is an example of a bulleted list.  The three units in our course are

• Vocabulary Development
• Reading Comprehension Strategies
• Text Structure

13. Fact Box/Side Bar

Side Bars or Fact Boxes are portions of text that are encased in a box or highlighted in such a way that they are visually set apart from the linear paragraphing of the rest of the text.  They frequently contain supplemental information, or highlight points of particular interest that are also conveyed elsewhere in paragraph form.  You might find a side bar that provides interesting percentages or statistics that support an argument being made, or maybe a publisher will use one to pull out a particular quote from the writing that is likely to catch a reader's eye.

Fact boxes and side bars are common in newspapers and magazines.  Some types of academic texts may use them more frequently than they are found in other disciplines.  Social studies and science texts in particular may use fact boxes.

14. Hyperlinks

When reading online, hyperlinks are another valuable text feature.  Hyperlinks allow us to click on a word, link, or phrase to be redirected to a different website or area of a website that is named by the link.  Frequently, we find these in reference lists at the end of scholarly works (and it is often great to be able to utilize these for additional research).  Non-scholarly texts may often contain references, and it is then perhaps even more important to be able to click on the sources to use the readings to verify the information that the author has included in their own article.  We also see hyperlinks within online textbooks and other types of readings that can allow us to more easily navigate to related content rather than trying to search through an entire e-book or website to find related information. 

This is not required reading for our course, but here's an example of a hyperlink that takes you to a page that actually tells you more about hyperlinks.  Research shows that reading online makes different cognitive demands on readers, as you have to think about whether or not to click on hyperlinks.

1. Narration

The purpose of narration is to tell a story or relate an event. Narration is an especially useful tool for sequencing or putting details and information into some kind of logical order, usually chronological.

Literature uses narration heavily, but it also can be useful in academic writing for strong impact.

An academic essay about the impact of lead in the drinking water in Flint, Michigan, for instance, might include a narrative section that tells the story of one particular family that’s been impacted. This will help illustrate the broader impacts on the community.

2. Description

The purpose of description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that which is being described. It is heavily based on sensory details: what we experience through our five senses.

Description is very useful in writing of all types.

In our essay about lead in drinking water, sensory details such as the color of the lead-contaminated water coming out of the tap, or the taste of it when used for cooking, will be informative and help clarify the dangers to the community of Flint.

3. Example

In our discussion of rhetorical modes, we’ve been looking at examples with the lead in the water of Flint, Michigan. An exemplification essay (sometimes also called an illustration essay) extends this idea even further: it carries one or more examples into great detail, in order to show the details of a complex problem in a way that’s easy for readers to understand. Paragraphs can also use the example pattern if they contain multiple examples to support a claim within a topic sentence.

Writing in detail about the drinking water crisis in Flint might be used to exemplify the political situation where a state governor appoints an emergency manager over a city, taking authority away from a mayor or a town council. On the surface, it seems like these two ideas aren’t connected, so the extended example of the drinking water situation will help readers to understand the potential consequences of removing local leadership.

4. Definition

A definition essay takes the concept of “definition” more broadly, moving beyond a dictionary definition to examine a word or concept as we actually use and understand it. Paragraphs that use the definition structure often focus on defining a single concept.

If we use the term “drinking water crisis” to apply to the situation in Flint, Michigan, what does that actually mean? At what point does the term “crisis” apply? A definition essay would examine the various factors that shape a public crisis, such as the level of lead contamination in water determined to be dangerous, the costs of drinking water to citizens, the difficulty in accessing water in other ways, and the damage lead exposure can have to children.

5. Process Analysis

Analyzing a process can also be thought of as a “how-to” essay or paragraph. Technical writing includes a lot of process analysis, for instance. Academic writing can incorporate process analysis to show how an existing problem came to be, or how it might be solved, by following a clear series of steps.

Tracing the steps that led to the current drinking water problems in Flint would prove a useful exercise in a process analysis essay. Showing exactly what steps were taken, and in what order, would help illustrate for readers how similar situations could be avoided in other communities in the future.

6. Division/Classification

A classification essay takes one large concept, and divides it into individual pieces. A nice result from this type of writing is that it helps the reader to understand a complex topic by focusing on its smaller parts. This is particularly useful when an author has a unique way of dividing up the concepts, to provide new insight into the ways it might be viewed.

Part of the reason that the Flint drinking water issue has gotten so much attention, is that it’s such a thorny issue with so many potential long-term effects. A classification approach to this topic could divide the overall concept of “crisis” into individual threads: the political implications, the public health implications, the financial implications, and the educational implications.

7. Comparison/Contrast

Comparison focuses on similarities between things, and contrast focuses on their differences. We innately make comparisons all the time, and they appear in many kinds of writings. The goal of comparison and contrast in academic essays may be to show that one item is superior to another, based on a set of evaluations included as part of the writing.

A path to deeper understanding of the Flint drinking water crisis would be to look at another community that has experienced something similar. Comparisons and contrasts might be made in how the situation arose in each location, how it was handled by public officials and private citizens, and how it was ultimately resolved.

8. Cause/Effect

If narration offers a sequence of events, cause/effect essays offer an explanation about why that sequence matters. Cause/effect writing is particularly powerful when the author can provide a cause/effect relationship that the reader wasn’t expecting, and as a result see the situation in a new light.

We recognize that lead contamination in drinking water is a problem, but many readers may not know exactly why that is. Drawing a cause/effect relationship between lead exposure in childhood, and later learning disabilities and physical problems once these children grow up, would be helpful for understanding the long-term impacts possible from the current situation in Flint.

9. Problem/Solution

This type of academic writing has two equally important tasks: clearly identifying a problem, and then providing a logical, practical solution for that problem. Establishing that a particular situation IS a problem can sometimes be a challenge–many readers might assume that a given situation is “just the way it is,” for instance.

If the fact that the drinking water supply in Flint contains lead is the problem, then an academic problem/solution essay will establish WHY it’s a problem. This might include noting the EPA guidelines for lead in the water supply, and what Flint’s water testing results reveal. Then, this essay would need to establish a solution for the situation that would be both practical and feasible. The temporary solution many residents are using currently is to buy bottled water to drink, cook, and bathe with. A problem/solution essay on this subject will need to offer a more manageable long-term solution for these residents.

10. Argument & Persuasion

The purpose of argumentation (also called persuasive writing) is to prove the validity of a point of view, by presenting sound reasoning to thoroughly convince the reader. These assume that the reader is initially uninformed about the topic, or holds a viewpoint that differs from the author’s. The author’s goal is to bring the reader around to his or her way of thinking on the matter.

Many different people, organizations, and political groups have been blamed along the way for the water crisis in Flint. A persuasive paper looking at who’s ultimately responsible would offer a definitive answer for which group or person deserves the bulk of the blame. It would also effectively address why this matters to the reader–why a reader should care about making sure that the guilty party is ultimately held responsible for their actions.

As the examples of the Flint, Michigan drinking water situation show, there is a lot of overlap between the different rhetorical modes. Many academic essays combine two or more different rhetorical modes in one finished product. This leads to a rich reading experience.  Even though authors frequently mix modes, they may rely most heavily on one particular mode to achieve their purpose.  For instance, an author writing to persuade will probably rely on argument as the primary rhetorical mode, but many individual paragraphs may fit the example pattern, as an argument without solid examples and explanations of those examples is probably not a very good argument.  Similarly, all writing is descriptive to some degree, but description as a primary mode is actually fairly rare (real estate listings may be a good example of description as primary rhetorical mode, as agents are writing to vividly describe a home, with a larger purpose being to persuade readers to buy that property!).  Narratives that are interesting frequently rely on heavy description, but rhetorically, the text is more accurately labeled as narration, if the primary goal is to tell a story (with the broader purpose being to entertain).

At the paragraph level, however, there is typically one dominant pattern of organization (rhetorical mode) present. This structure helps readers to understand how the text is organized, allowing readers to more easily grasp the main idea of each paragraph.