4.1: Introduction to Argument Development

Developing Arguments

Section Learning Objectives

1. Explain the components of a strong argument, including clear claims, relevant evidence, and logical reasoning, to effectively support a thesis in academic writing.
2. Identify strategies for developing coherent and persuasive arguments, focusing on organization, counterarguments, and evidence evaluation to enhance credibility and persuasiveness.
3. Apply critical thinking and rhetorical skills to construct and present arguments in various contexts, employing ethical persuasion techniques and addressing diverse audiences with sensitivity to differing viewpoints.

Developing Arguments

The ability to form a logical argument is paramount in college and in life. While the photo below might be perceived as funny, it represents a fallacy known as a red herring, which distracts the listener from the argument by pointing out their grammar. In this chapter, we will learn how to construct a well-reasoned argument.

"Rule #1 during arguments" by Global X is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

A strong argument is built on a foundation of clear logic, sound evidence, and persuasive rhetoric. We will explore the importance of being wrong, as recognizing and learning from our mistakes is a crucial part of developing robust arguments. Understanding rhetorical appeals—ethos, pathos, and logos—will help you engage your audience ethically, emotionally, and logically.

Ethics play a vital role in argumentation. Presenting information honestly and fairly ensures that your argument is credible and respected. Logical reasoning is equally essential, as it underpins the structure of your argument, ensuring that your claims are supported by solid evidence and sound reasoning.

Emotional appeal, while often seen as secondary to logic, can be a powerful tool when used appropriately. It helps connect with your audience on a personal level, making your argument more compelling.

We will also delve into the Toulmin Model of argumentation, which provides a practical framework for constructing and analyzing arguments. This model emphasizes the importance of claims, warrants, and backing, helping you to structure your arguments clearly and logically.

Furthermore, we will discuss the purpose of an argument, which is not just to persuade but also to engage in a meaningful exchange of ideas. By understanding the principles and techniques covered in this chapter, you will be better equipped to develop and present arguments that are logical, ethical, and persuasive.

"The Purpose of Argument" by ImNotQuiteJack is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.

The Purpose of Argument (How to Be Wrong)

The following is remixed from: Andrew Gurevich Mt Hood Community College via MHCC Library Press

Why do we argue with one another? What is the intention? How do we know when we have “won” or “lost” an argument? What happens then? In this unit, we explore the functions and purposes of argument to reveal the deeper reasons we engage in this complex, frequently stressful activity and what we can gain by having an enhanced perspective on it.

Argument is not in itself an end or a purpose of communication. It is rather a means of discourse, a way of developing what we have to say. We can identify four primary aims or purposes that argument helps us accomplish:

• Inquiry
• Conviction
• Persuasion
• Negotiation
• View the Powerpoint: The Four Aims of Argument

Arguing to Inquire: Forming our opinions or questioning those we already have.

"Questions?" by Marcus Ramberg is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.

The ancient Greeks used the word dialectic to identify an argument as inquiry; a more common term might be dialogue or conversation. Arguing to inquire helps us accomplish the following:

• to form opinions
• to question opinions
• to reason our way through conflicts or contradictions

It requires an attitude of patient questioning under non-threatening circumstances, usually done alone or among trusted friends and associates. The primary purpose is a search for the truth. The primary audience is often the writer and fellow inquirers concerned with the same issues.

• Examples: Classroom discussions; journal writing; exploratory essays; letters; late-night bull sessions in a dorm.

Arguing to Convince: Gaining assent from others through case-making.

While some inquiry may be never-ending, the goal of most inquiry is to reach a conclusion, a conviction. We seek an earned opinion, achieved through careful thought, research, and discussion. And then we usually want others to share this conviction, to secure the assent of an audience by means of reason rather than by force.

• Arguing to inquire centers on asking questions: we want to expose and examine what we think.
• Arguing to convince requires us to make a case, to get others to agree with what we think. While inquiry is a cooperative use of argument, convincing is competitive. We put our case against the case of others in an effort to win the assent of readers.
• Examples: a lawyer’s brief; newspaper editorials; case studies; most academic writing

"Prime Minister David Cameron and Melinda Gates talk about family planning issues and volunteering with young people at the London Summit on Family Planning" by DFID - UK Department for International Development is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.

Arguing to Persuade: Moving others to action through rational, emotional, personal, and stylistic appeals.

While arguing to convince seeks to earn the assent of readers or listeners, arguing to persuade attempts to influence their behavior, to move them to act upon the conviction. Persuasion aims to close the gap between assent and action. To convince focuses on the logic of an argument; to persuade will often rely on the personal appeal of the writer (what Aristotle called ethos) and involve an appeal to an audience’s emotions (pathos). In addition to these personal and emotional appeals, persuasion exploits the resources of language more fully than convincing does.

• In general, the more academic the audience or the more purely intellectual the issue, the more likely that the writing task involves an argument to convince rather than to persuade. In most philosophy or science assignments, for example, the writer would usually focus on conviction rather than persuasion, confining the argument primarily to thesis, reasons, and evidence. But when you are working with public issues, with matters of policy or questions of right and wrong, persuasion’s fuller range of appeal is usually appropriate.
• Persuasion begins with difference and, when it works, ends with identity. We expect that before reading our argument, readers will differ from us in beliefs, attitudes, and/or desires. A successful persuasive argument brings readers and writer together, creating a sense of connection between parties.
• Examples: Political speeches, sermons, advertising

Arguing to Negotiate: Exploring differences of opinion in the hope of reaching agreement and/or cooperation.

If efforts to convince and/or persuade the audience have failed, the participants must often turn to negotiation, resolving the conflict in order to maintain a satisfactory working relationship.

• Each side must listen closely to understand the other side’s case and the emotional commitments and values that support that case. The aim of negotiation is to build consensus, usually by making and asking for concessions. Dialogue plays a key role, bringing us full circle back to argument as inquiry. Negotiation often depends on collaborative problem-solving.
• Examples: Diplomatic negotiations, labor relations, documents in organizational decision-making; essays seeking resolution of conflict between competing parties; also frequent in private life when dealing with disagreements among friends and family members.

"Negotiations for Peace “Hangouts” Program 2016" by U.S. Embassy Jerusalem is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

The Importance of Being Wrong

In this module, you are reading articles and watching videos that explore the science and logic of why we argue and why being wrong is not something we should try to avoid at all costs or view as “losing.” Collaboration and clarification of ideas are the highest pursuits of argumentative communication and when we are proven wrong, we are given the opportunity to learn, to grow and to enhance our understanding of the complex and vibrant world we inhabit.

• View the video: For Argument’s Sake, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JTN9Nx8VYtk&feature=youtu.be
• View the video: On Being Wrong, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QleRgTBMX88&feature=youtu.be

Both of these talks (above) address the dangers of being too close to our own ideas. They offer examples and insights that show what can go wrong when we would rather “feel” right than “be” right. They also address the opportunities that open up to us when we allow ourselves to be detached enough from our ideas to create the space for growth, doubt, investigation and eventually increased understanding and awareness. When we believe we are right about everything all of the time, we miss the opportunities to learn from one another and from each new perspective we encounter.

This page titled 1.3: Week 3 - The Purpose of Argument (How to Be Wrong) is shared under a CC BY license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Andrew Gurevich (MHCC Library Press) .

2. Toulmin Analysis by Gurevich: Argument Analysis

Rhetorical Appeals

In this section, we’ll focus on how the rhetorical triangle can be used in service of argumentation, especially through the balanced use of ethical, logical, and emotional appeals: ethos, logos, and pathos, respectively. In the rhetorical triangle, you’ll note that each appeal has been placed next to the corner of the triangle with which it is most closely associated:

• Ethos - Appeals to the audience's ethics. Ethos relies on the credibility, reputation, and trustworthiness of the speaker or writer (most closely associated with the voice).
• Logos - Appeals to the audience's logic. Logos relies on reason, logic, and facts in the argument (most closely associated with the message).
• Pathos - Appeals to emotion. Pathos relies on stirring the emotions (sympathy, anger, pride, etc.) of the listeners or readers (most closely associated with the audience).

Each of these appeals relies on a certain type of evidence: logical, emotional, or ethical. Based on your audience and purpose, you have to decide what combination of techniques will work best as you present your case. Some of the best arguments use a combination of all three.

The Appeal to Ethics (Ethos)

Ethos is an appeal to the audiences' ethics and relies on the credibility of the author. When reading a source, you should ask yourself, "Why should I trust you?" In other words, "How has the author established their credibility?" The same holds true when you are writing. You want to establish reasons for your audience to trust you.

For example, a college professor who places a college logo on a website gains some immediate credibility from being associated with the college. An advertisement for tennis shoes using a well-known athlete gains some credibility. You might create an ethical appeal in an essay on solving a campus problem by noting that you are serving in student government.

Three of the best ways to demonstrate ethos are:

• By personal experience: Although your lived experience might not set hard and-fast rules about the world, it is worth noting that you may be an expert on certain facets of your life. For instance, a student who has played rugby for fifteen years of their life is in many ways an authority on the sport.
• By education or other certifications: Professional achievements demonstrate ethos by revealing status in a certain field or discipline.
• By citing other experts: The common expression is “Stand on the shoulders of giants.” This is actually the tag line of Google Scholar. You can develop ethos by pointing to other people with authority and saying, “Look, this smart/experienced/qualified/important person agrees with me.”

As a student, you might not have enough experience to persuade your audience that you're an expert. In these cases, you can establish your credibility by using reliable sources and acknowledging those who've helped you learn more about the topic (citing your sources). The appeal to ethics can add an important component to your argument, but keep in mind that ethos is only as strong as the credibility of the association being made. In other words, if you're not citing very good sources, then you're harming your ethical appeal to the audience.

"Citing a Source in Noodletools" by theunquietlibrary is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

The Appeal to Logic (Logos)

Logos refers to an appeal to the audience's logical reasoning. Logos will often employ statistics, data, or other quantitative facts to demonstrate the validity of an argument. For example, in an essay proposing that participating in high school athletics helps students develop into more successful students, you could show graphs comparing the grades of athletes and non-athletes, as well as high school graduation rates and post–high school education enrollment. These statistics would support your points in a logical way and would probably work well with a school board that is considering cutting a sports program.

Keep in mind that stating a fact or a statistics does not alone constitute logos.You need to make sure your interpretation of the logic is sound. If it's not, it's described as a logical fallacy. We'll explore this further in the next page of reading.

The Appeal to Emotions (Pathos)

The goal of an emotional appeal is to garner sympathy, develop anger, instill pride, inspire happiness, or trigger other emotions. When authors choose this method, their goal is for the audience to react emotionally regardless of what they might think logically.

There are two especially effective techniques for cultivating pathos:

• Make the audience aware of the issue’s relevance to them specifically. “How would you feel if this happened to you? What are we to do about this issue?”
• Tell stories. A story about one person or one community can have a deeper impact than broad, impersonal data or abstract, hypothetical statements. Consider the difference between these two appeals:
  • About 1.5 million pets are euthanized each year
  • Scooter, an energetic and loving former service dog with curly brown hair like a Brillo pad, was put down yesterday.
  • Both are impactful, but the latter is more memorable and more specific.

Unfortunately, emotional appeals are also often used unethically to sway opinions without solid reasoning.

Whether your argument relies primarily on ethos, logos, pathos, or a combination of these appeals, plan to make your case with your entire arsenal of facts, statistics, examples, anecdotes, illustrations, figurative language, quotations, expert opinions, discountable opposing views, and common ground with the audience. Carefully choosing these supporting details will control the tone of your writing as well as the success of your argument.

"Happy Friday! I guess our little friend here is sad.. He doesn't have a #Halloween custom! Hopefully he will get more cheerful tonight when the #bats and #witches start flying around. #travelphotography #animals #animallover #travel #animalphotography" by Frontierofficial is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

How to Use Rhetoric to Get What You Want

This video by Camille Langston from from TED-Ed gives you another quick overview of rhetorical appeals.

There are many ways to form an argument, but Stephen Toulmin, a British philosopher, author, and educator, developed a model of argumentation–The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, which is a diagram containing six interrelated components used for analyzing arguments.

The Toulmin Model

Claim: the position or claim being argued for; the conclusion of the argument.

Data/Grounds: reasons or supporting evidence that bolster the claim.

Warrant: the principle, provision or chain of reasoning that connects the grounds/reason to the claim.

Backing: support, justification, reasons to back up the warrant.

Rebuttal/Reservation: exceptions to the claim; description and rebuttal of counter-examples and counter-arguments.

Qualification: specification of limits to claim, warrant and backing. The degree of conditionality asserted.

• When looking for the claim, ask yourself the question: “What is the main idea of central claim of this argument?”
• When looking for the data/grounds, ask yourself the question, “What are the reasons given to support the claim?”
• When looking for the warrant, ask yourself the question, “Why does the arguer believe this data proves this claim?”

Definition: 4 Types of Claims

Claims

There are FOUR types of claims:

1. Claims of Fact
2. Claims of Value
3. Claims of Policy
4. Claims of Definition

Warrants/General Strategies of Argument

"three women arguing on the sidewalk" by joguldi is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Warrants are chains of reasoning that connect the claim and evidence/reason. A warrant is the principle, provision or chain of reasoning that connects the grounds/reason to the claim. Warrants operate at a higher level of generality than a claim or reason, and they are not normally explicit.

• Example: “Needle exchange programs should be abolished [claim] because they only cause more people to use drugs [reason/data].” The unstated warrant is: “when you make risky behavior safer you encourage more people to engage in it.”
• Example: “We should outlaw same-sex marriage [claim] because the Bible says it is morally wrong [reason/data].” The unstated warrant is: “we should base laws on what the Bible says.”

If the audience/readers share the warrant (the unstated assumption that connects the data to the claim) they will likely find the argument valid. If they do not, they will likely not. There are THREE types of warrants:

• Substantive Warrants (based in Logos)
• Authoritative Warrants (based in Ethos)
• Motivational Warrants (based in Pathos)
• View the Video: Understanding WarrantsOpens in a new window https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1BMn...ature=youtu.be
• View the Video: Assumptions & WarrantsOpens in a new window https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oizr...ature=youtu.be

View the Handout: Toulmin WorksheetOpens in a new window (use it to help diagram and analyze the elements of the argument presented in the article you have chosen for your final essay assignment.)

Toulmin is one rhetorical model. There are other rhetorical models we can use to form an argument.

This page titled 1.9: Week 9 - Toulmin Analysis (Warrants) is shared under a CC BY license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Andrew Gurevich (MHCC Library Press)

Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Developing Arguments for Community College Students in an Agricultural Community in the Central Valley of California

The ability to form a logical argument is paramount in college and in life. A strong argument is built on a foundation of clear logic, sound evidence, and persuasive rhetoric. Understanding rhetorical appeals—ethos, pathos, and logos—will help you engage your audience ethically, emotionally, and logically.

Example 1: Argument for Improved Water Management

Claim/Opinion: The Central Valley needs to implement improved water management practices to ensure the sustainability of agricultural activities.

Evidence/Fact: According to the California Department of Water Resources, the Central Valley has experienced significant water shortages over the past decade, impacting crop yields and the livelihood of farmers.

Analysis/Explanation: Improved water management practices, such as the adoption of drip irrigation systems and better water storage solutions, can help mitigate the effects of drought and ensure that farmers have a reliable water supply. This would not only sustain agricultural production but also protect the economic stability of the region.

Ethos (Ethical Appeal): By referencing the California Department of Water Resources, you establish credibility through the use of a reliable and authoritative source. Additionally, as a community college student from an agricultural family, you can speak from personal experience about the challenges faced by local farmers.

Logos (Logical Appeal): Use logical reasoning to demonstrate how improved water management practices have led to positive outcomes in other regions. Provide statistical data showing the increase in crop yields and economic benefits from adopting advanced irrigation technologies.

Pathos (Emotional Appeal): Share a story about a local farmer who struggled with water shortages but managed to improve their situation by implementing new water management techniques. Highlight the emotional impact on their family and the community, emphasizing the importance of taking action to support local farmers.

Toulmin Model of Argumentation:

• Claim: The Central Valley needs improved water management practices.
• Grounds: Data from the California Department of Water Resources showing significant water shortages.
• Warrant: Improved water management practices can mitigate drought effects.
• Backing: Success stories and statistical evidence from other regions.
• Qualifier: While no solution is perfect, the benefits of improved water management outweigh the costs.
• Rebuttal: Address potential counterarguments, such as the initial cost of implementing new systems, by highlighting long-term savings and increased productivity.

Example 2: Argument for Supporting Local Farmers’ Markets

Claim/Opinion: Supporting local farmers’ markets is essential for promoting sustainable agriculture and the local economy in the Central Valley.

Evidence/Fact: Studies from the University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources show that farmers' markets boost local economies by providing farmers with direct sales opportunities and consumers with fresh, locally grown produce.

Analysis/Explanation: Farmers’ markets reduce the need for long-distance transportation, decreasing the carbon footprint associated with food distribution. Additionally, they create a sense of community and allow consumers to connect directly with the people who grow their food, fostering greater appreciation for local agriculture.

Ethos (Ethical Appeal): As a student and a member of the local community, you can share your experiences visiting farmers’ markets and emphasize the importance of supporting local farmers. Cite research from the University of California to strengthen your credibility.

Logos (Logical Appeal): Present logical arguments about the environmental and economic benefits of farmers’ markets. Use data to show how local farmers’ markets reduce transportation costs and support local economies.

Pathos (Emotional Appeal): Tell a story about a local farmer who has benefited from selling at farmers’ markets, describing the positive impact on their livelihood and their ability to continue farming sustainably. Appeal to the audience’s emotions by highlighting the farmer’s dedication and the fresh, high-quality produce available at these markets.

Toulmin Model of Argumentation:

• Claim: Supporting local farmers’ markets is essential for promoting sustainable agriculture and the local economy.
• Grounds: Research from the University of California showing economic and environmental benefits.
• Warrant: Farmers’ markets provide direct sales opportunities and reduce transportation-related carbon footprints.
• Backing: Success stories and statistical data from local farmers and market studies.
• Qualifier: While not all farmers may participate, the overall benefits to those who do and the community are significant.
• Rebuttal: Address potential counterarguments, such as the higher cost of produce at farmers’ markets, by discussing the value of quality and the economic impact on local farmers.

By constructing arguments using the Toulmin Model and incorporating rhetorical appeals, students can develop well-rounded and persuasive arguments that resonate with their audience, whether in academic settings or community discussions.

End of Section Summary: Developing Arguments

In this chapter, we explored the foundational components necessary for constructing strong, logical, and persuasive arguments. The ability to form a well-reasoned argument is critical in both academic and everyday contexts. We began by understanding the importance of clear claims, relevant evidence, and logical reasoning to effectively support a thesis. Recognizing and learning from our mistakes was highlighted as an essential part of developing robust arguments.

We delved into the importance of rhetorical appeals—ethos, pathos, and logos—and their role in engaging audiences ethically, emotionally, and logically. Each appeal relies on different types of evidence and serves unique purposes in argumentation. Ethos establishes the credibility of the speaker, logos appeals to logical reasoning through facts and data, and pathos connects with the audience on an emotional level.

The Toulmin Model was introduced as a practical framework for constructing and analyzing arguments. This model emphasizes the importance of claims, data, warrants, backing, rebuttals, and qualifications, helping structure arguments clearly and logically. Understanding the purpose of argument—whether to inquire, convince, persuade, or negotiate—was underscored as crucial for engaging in meaningful discourse.

We also discussed the significance of ethics in argumentation, ensuring that information is presented honestly and fairly to maintain credibility and respect. Emotional appeal, while secondary to logic, can be a powerful tool when used appropriately to make arguments more compelling.

In practical application, these skills are invaluable for critically evaluating current events. For example, when analyzing debates on climate change policies, one must consider the credibility of sources (ethos), the logical presentation of scientific data (logos), and the emotional impact of climate-related disasters on public opinion (pathos).

By mastering these principles and techniques, you are better equipped to develop and present arguments that are logical, ethical, and persuasive, enhancing your ability to engage in critical thinking and effective communication in both academic settings and beyond.

Attributions

The content above was assisted by ChatGPT in outlining and organizing information. The final material was curated, edited, authored, and arranged through human creativity, originality, and subject expertise of the Coalinga College English Department and the Coalinga College Library Learning Resource Center and is therefore under the CC BY NC SA license when applicable. To see resources on AI and copyright please see the United States Copyright Office 2023 Statement and the following case study on using AI assistance but curating and creating with human originality and creativity.

Images without specific attribution were generated with the assistance of ChatGPT 2024 and are not subject to any copyright restrictions, in accordance with the United States Copyright Office 2023 Statement.

All original source content remix above came from the following open educational resources:

1.3: Week 3 - The Purpose of Argument (How to Be Wrong) is shared under a CC BY license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Andrew Gurevich (MHCC Library Press) .