7.2: Cultural Considerations on Information

Cultures around the world vary in how they perceive, interpret, and value information. These differences often stem from distinct cultural norms and values that shape how individuals within a culture think and share information. By considering the ways that social dynamics and values may vary, we can gain a better appreciation of the means of information creation and sharing around the world.

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Cultural Influences and Practices

Masuda and Nisbett (2001), note that individual behavior differs when you compare people from notably different cultures. For example, Hall (1976) describes the United States and some Western European countries as low-context cultures using articulated messages (such as a descriptive sentence) and Korea, Japan, and Taiwan as high-context cultures preferring indirect and ambiguous messages (such as an image and mood). It should be noted, however, that one criticism of some of these types of studies is that they do not account for cultural change over time. A number of studies have found that Hispanic and Latine peoples are prone to seeking information from their local community before other sources, but newer research shows an increasing reliance on the internet (Lee, et. al).

There are many societal and cultural elements that may influence how someone perceives information, the authority of its source, and the correctness of their choices. Pornpitakpan and Francis (2000) note a number of elements that can be considered including that:

• People living in high power distance (notably unequal) cultures tend to rely more on information from people in high status positions.
• People in high uncertainty avoidance cultures (those that rely on set rules and ways of doing things) seek absolute truths and have more difficulty with relativism (or the view that knowledge and morality are not absolute).
• People in collectivism-focused societies (those highly valuing social harmony and group needs) may value the opinions of others more highly.

Cultural practices and preferences can also shape the methods of communication as well. While many forms of information sharing take a written form, there are cultures that value and prioritize oral traditions. These sorts of traditions often rely on speech and generational knowledge-sharing to share and preserve their knowledge. While we may each be most familiar with our own cultural customs and beliefs, it is important to note that the ethical and social standards of each culture will vary.

Consider This!

If someone's culture places a higher value on the opinions of others and on the needs of the group, how might that affect how they evaluate the quality of an information source?

Global Examples

Below, we have some examples of cultural differences observed in research. It should be noted that study findings of this sort are often contested, leading to discussions among scholars about the findings. As with all research, this type of scholarship exists as on ongoing conversation. Rather than establishing 'fact', it often leads to groups of scholars discussing and creating a common consensus or agreement about the world. It should also be noted that many cultures and their perspectives change over time. And yet, these serve as reasonable examples of how certain cultures might vary in sharing information and in the types of information they value.

Collectivist vs. Individualist Societies

• Example: Japan vs. the United States

Japan is often viewed as a collectivist society, where sharing of information is viewed through a lens of group harmony and consensus. Japanese culture is noted as valuing group cohesion and an avoidance of confrontation. The United States, on the other hand, is portrayed as a more individualistic society where information is often direct and individual-centered. People are encouraged to speak their minds and share personal opinions openly. (Kavanagh, 65, 67-69)

High-Context vs. Low-Context Communication

• Example: China vs. Germany

China is generally described as a high-context culture, meaning that they rely heavily on non-verbal cues and context in their communication. This can lead to needing to read between the lines or understanding gestures and tone to get the full-context of what is being communicated. Low-context cultures, like Germany, prefer explicit and clear communication. Information is often shared directly with an emphasis on clarity (Ming-Jer).

Book Banning in the United States

Differences in information access and the culture of information sharing isn't just about comparing different countries. Even within the United States, there can be dramatic differences between states or even counties! Book bans have long been a challenge for libraries. Book bans are attempts to remove or limit access to specific books. These types of efforts are made for a variety of reasons, but sometimes they are requested by people who haven't even read the books. While some argue that there are legitimate reasons to censor access to certain books, others argue that the decisions of what books can be read should be up to individual choice and parental supervision. Below is a list of a few top-banned books in the United States and some reasons given for banning them:

• Adventures of Huckleberry Finn - Course Language, Racial Stereotypes
• Adventures of Tom Sawyer - Course Language, Racial Stereotypes
• The Awakening - Sexual Content
• Beloved - Themes of Slavery
• Black Boy - Themes of Communism and Racism
• Brave New World - Anti-religion, Anti-family
• Call of the Wild - Author’s pro-socialist views
• Carrie - Violence, Anti-religious Themes
• A Child Called “It” - Child Abuse
• The Color Purple - Offensive Language, Sexually Explicit
• Dreaming in Cuban - Sexual Content
• Lord of the Rings - Supernatural Themes
• My Sister’s Keeper - Homosexuality

Florida provides a recent case study in censorship. New legislation was passed in 2022 which made it easier to challenge access to books in Florida schools. Over 2022-2023, roughly 300 book titles were removed from school libraries (Rodriguez). This means that as students learn in school, the titles and information they have available will vary based on the location they live in.

 

 

Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Western Scientific Knowledge

Definition: Indigenous Knowledge (or Traditional Knowledge)

The "environmental, socio-economic, cultural, and other elements of overall knowledge held by Indigenous peoples and practiced within Indigenous communities" ("TEK and Indigenous Knowledge Systems")

Definition: Scientific Method  

"The process of observing, asking questions, and seeking answers through tests and experiments" (Encyclopedia Britannica).

The Scientific Method is an approach to knowing that emphasizes asking questions, making observations, and running tests and experiments. The dominance of Western knowledge and the scientific method has often marginalized other ways of knowing, such as Indigenous Knowledge. Indigenous Knowledge refers to "environmental, socio-economic, cultural, and other elements of overall knowledge held by Indigenous peoples and practiced within Indigenous communities" ("TEK and Indigenous Knowledge Systems"). Western science, generally through what is called the Scientific Method, tries to establish understanding by simplifying complex issues. Values or issues that might create bias or interfere with the results of research are purposefully removed from the process in an attempt to get accurate, repeatable results. While this is the predominant approach for scientific approaches and western knowledge-building, that does not mean it is the only valid means for pursuing knowledge.

Ezeanya-Esiobu (2019) discusses how colonialism imposed Western scientific paradigms on African societies, viewing their indigenous knowledge as inferior. This suppression led to the loss of cultural knowledge and practices. This "acceptable knowledge" has often been dictated by those who prevail through military or economic domination. There are many different Indigenous Knowledge Systems with varying views. Some examples include that:

• All aspects of life are interconnected (including spirituality, history, language, etc.)
• Collective knowledge is intergenerational and passed along orally
• Time, patterns, and migrations are cyclical
• Much knowledge is based on observation

"Existing copyright law, steeped in Western concepts and values, does not adequately protect Indigenous traditional cultural expressions, nor does it sufficiently reflect or account for Indigenous cultural values." (Vezina)

As we'll discuss in more detail in the next section, there are flaws built into the U.S. system of copyright laws that favors western means of expression and knowledge-building. 

Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Sharing

Corridos

Celestino Fernández, provides a good example of indigenous knowledge and oral tradition, in explaining the Corridos of Mexico. A Corrido is "a way of documenting the experiences of people who often have no other voice". According to Fernández, they are songs written from the perspective of the everyday person. This tradition originally became popular in central Mexico in the 1830s. Many of these original songs were passed along verbally and had unknown authors. As such, existing U.S. copyright law does not cover a great many of these historic, cultural methods of knowing.

Sankofa

Sankofa is a concept based out of West Africa. Sankofa theory is an approach based in oral traditions and cultural practices that has been shaped into an academic theory at "highlights the importance of learning from the past to build the future" (Stanley & Chukwuorji). This approach emphasizes the importance of elders and the value of their memory as a source of knowledge. Akalimat talks about the importance of this principle to Black intellectual work in the world today and how respecting all forms of knowledge is important to modern life and humanity. 

 

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Sources

• Alkalimat, Abdul. "The Sankofa Principle: From the Drum to the Digital." 30th Symposium on African American Culture and Philosophy, 2016, https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/23/oa_edite...er/2934099/pdf. 
• Encyclopedia Britannica. "Scientific Method." britannica.com, 11 Sept. 2024, https://www.britannica.com/science/scientific-method.
• Ezeanya-Esiobu, Chika. "Indigenous Knowledge and Education in Africa." Springer Nature, 2019.
• Fernández, Celestino. "Corridos: (Mostly) True Stories in Verse with Music." Journal of Folklore and Education, vol 8, pp. 63-73.
• Hall, E. T. "Beyond Culture." New York Anchor Press, 1976.
• Kavanagh, Barry. "A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Japanese and English Non-Verbal Online Communication: The Use of Emoticons in Weblogs." Intercultural Communication Studies, vol. 19, no. 3, 2010, pp. 65-80.
• Lee, Young Ji, et al. "Online Health Information Seeking Behaviors of Hispanics in New York City: A Community-based Cross-sectional Study." Journal of Medical Internet Research, vol. 16, no. 7, 2014, pp. 1-13
• Masuda, Takahiko, and Richard E. Nisbett. "Attending Holistically Versus Analytically: Comparing the Context Sensitivity of Japanese and Americans." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 81, no. 5, 2001, pp. 922-934.
• Ming-Jer, Chen. "The Nuances of Cross-Cultural Communication." ideas.darden.virginia.edu, https://ideas.darden.virginia.edu/th...-communication. Accessed 19 September 2024. 
• Pornpitakpan, Chanthika, and Francis, June. "The Effect of Cultural Differences, Source Expertise, and Argument Strength on Persuasion: An Experiment with Canadians and Thais." Journal of International Consumer Marketing, vol. 13, no. 1, 2000, pp. 77-101.
• Rodriguez, Gabi. "Roughly 300 Books Were Removed from School Libraries in Florida Last Year. Here's the Full List." nbcmiami.com_, https://www.nbcmiami.com/news/local/...-list/3113184/. Accessed 25, September 2024.
• Stanley, Jennifer Tehan, and JohnBosco Chika Chukwuorji. "Sankofa: Learning from the Past to Build the Future - Introduction to the Special Issue on Aging in Sub-Saharan African." Innovation in Aging, vol. 8, iss. 4, 2024, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art...s/PMC11020234/.
• "TEK and Indigenous Knowledge Systems.", University of Minnesota_, https://greatlakestek.umn.edu/tek-in...nous-knowledge. Accessed 25, September 2024.
• Vezina, Brigitte, & Muscat, Alexis. "Sharing Indigenous Cultural Heritage Online: An Overview of GLAM Policies." 8 Aug. 2020, https://creativecommons.org/2020/08/...glam-policies/