2.3: The Rhetorical Appeals

In the last section, you learned that when you are given a writing assignment, you should consider your reader and the occasion before you start writing.

Then, when you begin writing, you make intentional choices that help you communicate clearly and effectively. Some of these choices include techniques that make your argument persuasive. A very effective choice is to use the rhetorical appeals. 

Aristotle described the rhetorical appeals in "Book Two" of Rhetoric. He identified described these appeals, ethos, pathos, and logos, as tools communicators use to persuade. They are not only only tools, but they are powerful ones. 

As a student developing writing skills, you will be asked to both identify and use the rhetorical appeals. The appeals are directly related to the writer (ethos), the reader (pathos), and the argument (logos). To include rhetorical appeals, a writer might ask, how can I present myself so I seem credible and trustworthy to my reader? How can I be sure the readers connect with me and my argument? And, how can I ensure my argument is sound and effective? 

Definitions.

Definition: The rhetorical appeals

Ethos comes from the Greek word for character. This refers to the writer, not the message. The writer demonstrates ethos by presenting themselves as authoritative, trustworthy, and credible.

Pathos comes from the Greek word for suffering, experience, or passion. It is related to feelings of sympathy and empathy. Used well, pathos persuades by creating ties between the reader and writer.

Logos comes from the Greek word for logic. It persuades by convincing readers that the message is sound and the evidence is reliable.

Explanation of how each rhetorical appeal works.

Ethos:

• Aristotle contends that writers must establish credibility in the minds of the audience.
• Writers should show unbiased expertise in the subject matter.
• You don't "use" ethos. Instead, you appeal to ethos in the way you represent yourself and your argument to the reader. You appeal to ethos when you share your credentials, present sound evidence, include other perspectives, and write well.
• If you have to analyze ethos in a text, you talk about what the author says and does to show they are credible, trustworthy, or ethical. Think about how they present themselves, how they speak about other authors or perspectives, and how they use language to reveal who they are.

Ethos. Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)

If a politician, let's call them Pat, writes a speech and blames an opponent for all the ills in the country, they are showing a lack of character. This approach will probably only work for those who are already in agreement with Pat. The rest of the audience will see Pat as someone who shows little regard for others or their reputations. Using these kinds of rhetorical choices, Pat establishes themselves as a person of little integrity or credibility. By continuing to badmouth others, the politician will develop a bad reputation. People will not want to work with Pat because they will not want to be part of that kind of campaign or risk being maligned by someone they work with.

2.Pathos

• When readers have positive thoughts or emotions, they will be more likely to accept the legitimacy of an argument.
• An appeal to pathos is how readers respond to the language, images, and ideas presented in the text. An appeal to pathos is how these things are described to have an emotional effect on readers.
• Appealing to pathos can also help readers relate to the writer or their message. Readers may have positive feelings if a writer seems nice or funny. They may feel sympathy for the writer who describes a bad situation they are in. They have warm feelings when reading descriptions of family or nostalgia.
• A writer does not "use" pathos. Rather, writers use words with connotations, descriptions, examples, personal experience to affect the readers' emotions.
• Sometimes writers will purposely evoke strong emotions to manipulate readers. When this happens, it is called propaganda. People who use propaganda might try to persuade by eliciting feelings of fear, love, patriotism, guilt, humor, hate, or joy. Sometimes appeals to pathos are very touching, such as some coffee commercials or animal shelter ads, appeal to nostalgia, family, or sympathy. These are overly sentimental and can guilt people into buying something or donating to a cause.
• Appeals to pathos is not bad, as some may suggest. In fact, using the right techniques helps your reader connect with you and your message. Instead of trying to generate strong emotion, you get readers to relate to you on a human level by sharing similar experiences. You might use an anecdotes, examples, or lessons from your own life to create a bond between you both. Readers are more likely to be persuaded when they share something in common with the writer.

Pathos. Example \(\PageIndex{2}\)

Politician Pat realizes that their reputation is shot and their ethos is poor, so they decide to use a different tactic. This time Pat will say positive things-- not about the opponent, but about the country. Pat writes an Op-Ed for the local paper. In it, they quote the country's founding document and use inspiring words written by judicious people. Pat also includes imagery of family and memories from "the good old days." Pat wants these things to make readers nostalgic, so they will associate Pat with all of those nice feelings. Once those feelings are established, Pat has a better chance of persuading opponants.

3. Logos

Logos refers to any attempt to appeal to the intellect or reason.

You do not "use" logos. Rather, you use facts, statistics, polls, and studies to convince readers that the claims in the message are correct. That is how you persuade by appealing to logos.

To analyze appeals to logos, you can point out anything rational, objective, of good judgement, or reasonable. You can also point out logical fallacies, irrational claims, unreasonable facts, or anything that seems suspicious.

Readers who find flaws in logic, fallacies, unreliable evidence, or inaccurate claims are unlikely to trust the writer or their argument.

Logos. Example \(\PageIndex{3}\)

Pat's campaign has improved since the Op-Ed, but the opponent is still ahead in the polls. Pat decides it is time to another speech, but this speech is to the local union. In the speech, Pat says the unions cost the workers more than they get in return. Pat wants to convince workers to quit the union in order to outlaw collective bargaining when elected. Pat provides accounting evidence that shows how union leaders mishandle the dues paid by the workers. Pat also has statistics that show workers could earn more without collective bargaining.  The use of this hard evidence works, and Pat has the workers riled up and ready to quit. Suddenly, Flash Fact-checker bursts through the door and announces that Pat's accounting books and statistics are fakes! Despite protests from Pat, it doesn't take long for Flash to convince the workers that all of Pat's evidence is worthless. Quickly the workers realize Pat has lied, and they walk out. If Pat had used accurate and credible evidence, he might have had the union workers votes.

                                                             The chart lists attributes for each the rhetorical appeal.                                                                                    Chart created by LauraLee Miller using Canva. Chart depicts the elements of ethos, pathos, and logos.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Search for five different print ads. Identify how they use the rhetorical appeals. You might not find all three in every ad. Identify, also, the five elements of a rhetorical situation. How do the rhetorical appeals work with the rhetorical situation to communicate a message?

Putting it together.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Designed by LauraLee Miller with Canva.

Rhetorical Triangle that shows the relationships with writer, reader, and message to the rhetorical appeals. Explained in text below.

The rhetorical triangle diagram above shows how all the pieces of communication works together. Writers (top corner) appeal to ethos (top) by proving they are credible, authoritative, or trustworthy.

Readers (left corner) are persuaded with appeals to pathos (left) by using detail, description, or literary techniques.

When writers appeal to logos (right corner), they use logic and evidence to make the message (right) sound and credible.

Within the triangle another upside down triangle shows further persuasive methods such as tone, style, and keeping to your purpose.

Surrounding the triangles, the context provides readers the background needed to understand the argument.

Here are some questions to ask yourself before you write:

Writing for your purpose. What are you asked to do in the assignment? What verb is specified in the instructions? Inform? Argue? Analyze? What are the conventions used for that genre?

Writing for your reader. Who is your reader? What education level are they? Where are they from? What are their beliefs? What cultural or conventional elements might you need to consider?

Including context. What do your readers know about your subject? Do they know the current conversation surrounding your topic? What do they need to know to understand your argument? What background, history, or definitions need to be explained?

Writing your message for your audience and purpose. Does your message fulfill your purpose? Is your thesis statement and organization appropriate for your purpose and genre? Is your message appropriate for your reader? What do you want your reader to know after reading your essay? Have you demonstrated the importance of what you are saying? Does everything you have said relate to your thesis?

As a writer, have I shown I’m trustworthy and reliable? Have I made connections with and for my reader? Have I provided sound logic and credible evidence? Have I used the appropriate writing style, academic conventions, and citation guidelines? Is there anything else I can do to make my message clearer?

Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)

Write a hypothetical email to your friend explaining how you made a mistake at your bank job, and it cost the bank $5000. Next, think about writing that email to the bank supervisor. What changes in the rhetorical situation? How do the audience and purpose change? Now imagine writing that email to a customer whose money you lost. How does that change the rhetorical situation and your message.

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Media Attribution

Images 1 and 2: Miller, LauraLee. "Evaluation analysis chart." designed using Canva, Canva.com