9.6: Late Classical and Hellenistic

 

Hellenistic Sculpture

By Boundless Art History

Altar of Zeus

Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): Altar of Zeus, Bergama, Turkey, c. 175 BCE: The altar is a U-shaped Ionic building built on a high platform with central steps leading to the top. (Photo: Lestat, CC BY-SA 3.0)

The great Altar of Zeus, now housed in Germany, was commissioned in the first half of the second century BCE during the reign of King Eumenes II to commemorate his victory over the Gauls, who were migrating into Asia Minor.

Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\): Plan of the Altar of Zeus. (Image: Wolfgang Radt, public domain)

The altar is a U-shaped Ionic building built on a high platform with central steps leading to the top (see Figures \(\PageIndex{6}\) and \(\PageIndex{7}\)). It faced east, was located near the theater of Pergamon, and commanded an outstanding view of the region. The altar is known for its grand design and for its frieze depicting the Gigantomachy—it wraps 370 feet around the base of the altar.

The Gigantomachy

The Gigantomachy depicts the Olympian gods fighting against their predecessors the Giants (Titans), the children of the goddess Gaia (see Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)). The frieze is known for its incredibly high relief, in which the figures are barely restrained by the wall, and for its deep drilling of lines with details to create dramatic shadows.

Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\): Nereus, Doris, a Giant, and Oceanus: Located on the north frieze of the Altar of Zeus, c. 175 BCE. The high relief and deep drilling of the figures also increases the liveliness and naturalism of the scene. (Photo: Claus Ableiter, CC BY-SA 3.0)

The high relief and deep drilling of the figures also increases the liveliness and naturalism of the scene. The figures are rendered with high plasticity. The texture of their skin, drapery, and scales add another level of naturalism. Furthermore, as the frieze follows the stairs, the limbs of the figures begin to spill out of their frame and onto the stairs, physically breaking into the space of the viewer . The style and high drama of the scenes is often referred to as the Hellenistic Baroque for its exaggerated motion, emphasis on details, and the liveliness of the characters.

The most famous scene on the frieze depicts Athena fighting the giant Alkyoneus (see Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\)). She grabs his head and pulls it back while Gaia emerges from the ground to plead for her son’s life and a winged Nike reaches over to crown Athena.

Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\): Athena and Alkyoneos: Located on the east frieze of the Altar of Zeus, c. 175 BCE. The entire composition is depicted in a chiastic shape, and the scene is filled with the tension and emotion that are key features in Hellenistic sculpture. (Photo: Gryffindor, public domain)

Athena’s drapery swirls around her with deep folds and her whole body is nearly removed from the frieze. The figures are depicted with the heightened emotion commonly found on Hellenistic statues. Alkyoneus’s face strains in pain and Gaia’s eyes, which are all that remain of her face, are full of terror and sorrow at the death of her son.

The entire composition is depicted in a chiastic shape. Athena stretches out to grasps Alkoyneus’s head, the two figures pull at each other in opposite directions. Meanwhile, the figure of Nike moves diagonally towards Athena, showing their convergence in a moment of victory. The diagonal line created by Gaia mimics the shape of her son, connecting the two figures through line and pathos. The scene is filled with the tension and emotion that are key features in Hellenistic sculpture.

The Dying Gauls

Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\): Epigonos (?), Dying Gaul. Roman marble copy of a bronze original of c. 230-220 BCE. 3’ 1/2” high. Museo Capitolino, Rome, Italy. (Photo: Anthony Majanlahti, CC BY 2.0)

A group of statues depicting dying Gauls, the defeated enemies of the Attalids, were situated inside the Altar of Zeus (see Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\)). The original set of statues is believed to have been cast in bronze by the court sculptor Epigonus in 230-220 BCE. Now only marble Roman copies of the figures remain.

Like the figures on the frieze and other Hellenistic sculptures, the figures are depicted with lifelike details and a high level of naturalism. They are also depicted in the common motif of barbarians. The men are nude and wear Celtic torcs [necklaces indicating status]. Their hair is shaggy and disheveled. The figures are positioned in dramatic compositions and are shown dying heroically, which turns them into worthy adversaries, increasing the perception of power of the Attalid dynasty. All three figures in the group are depicted in a Hellenistic manner. To fully appreciate the statues, it is best to walk around them. Their pain, nobility, and death are evident from all angles.

One Gaul is depicted lying down, supporting himself over his shield and a discarded trumpet. He furrows his brow as he looks downward at his bleeding chest wound as he prepares himself for death. His muscles are large and strong, signifying his strength as a warrior and implying the strength of the one who struck him down.

Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\): Ludovisi Gaul: This is a Roman marble copy of the Greek bronze original by Epigonos, c. 230-220 BCE, in Pergamon, Turkey. (Photo: Jastrow, public domain)

Two other figures complete the group. One figure depicts a Gallic chief committing suicide after he has killed his own wife (see Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\)). Also known as the Ludovisi Gaul, this sculpture group displays another heroic and noble deed of the foes, for typically women and children of the defeated would be murdered to avoid them from being captured and sold as slaves by the victors. The chief holds his fallen wife by the arm as he plunges his sword into his chest, where blood is already exiting the wound.

Hellenistic sculpture continues the trend of increasing naturalism seen in the stylistic development of Greek art. During this time, the rules of Classical art were pushed and abandoned in favor of new themes, genres, drama, and pathos that were never explored by previous Greek artists.

Furthermore, the Greek artists added a new level of naturalism to their figures by adding an elasticity to their form and expressions, both facial and physical. These figures interact with their audience in a new theatrical manner by eliciting an emotional reaction from their view—this is known as pathos.

Nike of Samothrace

One of the most iconic statues of the period, the Nike of Samothrace, also known as the Winged Victory, c. 190 BCE, commemorates a naval victory (see Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\)). This Parian marble statue depicts Nike, now armless and headless, alighting onto the prow of the ship. The prow is visible beneath her feet, and the scene is filled with theatricality and naturalism as the statue reacts to her surroundings.

Nike’s feet, legs, and body thrust forward in contradiction to her drapery and wings that stream backwards. Her clothing whips around her from the wind and her wings lift upwards. This depiction provides the impression that she has just landed and that this is the precise moment that she is settling onto the ship’s prow.

Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\): Nike of Samothrace, also known as the Winged Victory. Samothrace, Greece, c. 190 BCE. Marble, 8’ 1” high. Musee du Louvre, Paris, France. This marble statue commemorates a naval victory. (Photo: Marie-Lan Nguyen, public domain)

In addition to the sculpting, the figure was most likely set within a fountain, creating a theatrical setting where both the imagery and the auditory effect of the fountain would create a striking image of action and triumph.

Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\): Alexandros of Antioch-on-the-Meander, Aphrodite (Venus de Milo), from Melos, Greece, c. 150-125 BCE. Marble, 6’ 7” high. Musee du Louvre, Paris, France. (Photo: Shawn Lipowski, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Venus de Milo

Also known as the Aphrodite of Melos (c. 150-125 BCE), this sculpture by Alexandros of Antioch, is another well-known icon of the Hellenistic period (see Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\)). Today the goddess’s arms are missing. It has been suggested that one arm clutched at her slipping drapery while the other arm held out an apple, an allusion to the Judgment of Paris and the abduction of Helen.

Originally, like all Greek sculptures, the statue would have been painted and adorned with metal jewelry, which is evident from the attachment holes. This image is in some ways similar to Praxiteles’ Late Classical sculpture Aphrodite of Knidos (fourth century BCE), but it is considered to be more erotic than its earlier counterpart.

For instance, while she is covered below the waist, Aphrodite makes little attempt to cover herself. She appears to be teasing and ignoring her viewer, instead of accosting him and making eye contact.

Altered States

While the Nike of Samothrace exudes a sense of drama and the Venus de Milo a new level of feminine sexuality, other Greek sculptors explored new states of being. Instead of reproducing images of the ideal Greek male or female, as was favored during the Classical period, sculptors began to depict images of the old, tired, sleeping, and drunk—none of which are ideal representations of a man or woman.

The Barberini Faun

Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\): Barberini Faun: This is a Roman marble copy of the Greek bronze original, c. 220 BCE. Glyptothek, Munich, Germany. (Photo: MatthiasKabel, CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Barberini Faun, also known as the Sleeping Satyr (c. 220 BCE), depicts an effeminate figure, most likely a satyr, drunk and passed out on a rock. His body splays across the rock face without regard to modesty (see Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\)).

He appears to have fallen to sleep in the midst of a drunken revelry and he sleeps restlessly, his brow is knotted, face worried, and his limbs are tense and stiff. Unlike earlier depicts of nude men, but in a similar manner to the Venus de Milo, the Barberini Faun seems to exude sexuality.

Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\): Drunken Old Woman: This is a Roman marble copy of the Greek bronze original by Myron, c. 200–180 BCE. Musei Capitolini, Rome, Italy. (Photo: Tetraktys, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Drunken Old Woman

Images of drunkenness were also created of women, which can be seen in a statue attributed to the Hellenistic artist Myron of a drunken beggar woman (see Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\)). This woman sits on the floor with her arms and legs wrapped around a large jug and a hand gripping the jug’s neck.

Grape vines decorating the top of the jug make it clear that it holds wine. The woman’s face, instead of being expressionless, is turned upward and she appears to be calling out, possibly to passersby. Not only is she intoxicated, but she is old: deep wrinkles line her face, her eyes are sunken, and her bones stick out through her skin.

Seated Boxer

Figure \(\PageIndex{16}\): Apollonius, Boxer at Rest (or The Seated Boxer), from the Baths of Constantine, Quirinal Hill, Rome, Italy, c. 100 BCE. Bronze, 4’2” high. Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome, Italy. (Photo: Marie-Lan Nguyen, public domain)

Another image of the old and weary is a bronze statue of a seated boxer (see Figure \(\PageIndex{16}\)). While the image of an athlete is a common theme in Greek art, this bronze presents a Hellenistic twist.

He is old and tired, much like the Late Classical image of a Weary Herakles. However, unlike Herakles, the boxer is depicted beaten and exhausted from his pursuit. His face is swollen, lip spilt, and ears cauliflowered. This is not an image of a heroic, young athlete but rather an old, defeated man many years past his prime.

Figure \(\PageIndex{17}\): Demosthenes: This is a Roman copy of the Greek, bronze, original portrait bust by Polyeuktos. (Photo: Marie-Lan Nguyen, CC BY 2.5)

Portraiture

Individual portraits, instead of idealization, also became popular during the Hellenistic period. A portrait of Demosthenes by Polyeuktos, 280 BCE, is not an idealization of the Athenian statesman and orator (see Figure \(\PageIndex{17}\)). Instead, the statue takes notes of Demosthenes’s characteristic features, including his overbite, furrowed brow, stooped shoulders, and old, loose skin.

Even portrait busts, often copied from Polyeuktos’ famed statue, depict the weariness and sorrow of a man despairing the conquest of Philip II and end of Athenian democracy.

Roman Patronage

The Greek peninsula fell to Roman power in 146 BCE. Greece was a key province of the Roman Empire, and the Roman’s interest in Greek culture helped to circulate Greek art around the empire, especially in Italy, during the Hellenistic period and into the Imperial period of Roman hegemony.

Greek sculptors were in high demand throughout the remaining territories of the Alexander’s empire and then throughout the Roman Empire. Famous Greek statues were copied and replicated for wealthy Roman patricians and Greek artists were commissioned for large-scale sculptures in the Hellenistic style.

Originally cast in bronze, many Greek sculptures that we have today survive only as marble Roman copies. Some of the most famous colossal marble groups were sculpted in the Hellenistic style for wealthy Roman patrons and for the imperial court. Despite their Roman audience, these were purposely created in the Greek style and continued to display the drama, tension, and pathos of Hellenistic art.

Laocoön and His Sons

Figure \(\PageIndex{18}\): Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes, Laocoön and his Sons, early first century CE. Marble, 7’ 10 1/2″ high. Vatican Museums, Rome, Italy. (Photo: Marie-Lan Nguyen, public domain)

Laocoön was a Trojan priest of Poseidon who warned the Trojans, “Beware of Greeks bearing gifts,” when the Greeks left a large wooden horse at the gates of Troy. Athena or Poseidon (depending on the story’s version), upset by his vain warning to his people, sent two sea serpents to torture and kill the priest and his two sons.

Figure \(\PageIndex{19}\): Laocoön and His Sons: This detail of Laocoön’s face shows the carving and detail, the attention to the musculature of the body, and the deep drilling that are all characteristic elements of the Hellenistic style. (Photo: Marie-Lan Nguyen, CC BY 3.0)

Similar to other examples of Hellenistic sculpture, Laocoön and His Sons depicts a chiastic scene filled with drama, tension, and pathos (see Figures \(\PageIndex{18}\) and \(\PageIndex{29}\)). The figures writhe as they are caught in the coils of the serpents. The faces of the three men are filled with agony and toil, which is reflected in the tension and strain of their muscles. Laocoön stretches out in a long diagonal from his right arm to his left as he attempts to free himself.His sons are also entangled by the serpents, and their faces react to their doom with confusion and despair. The carving and detail, the attention to the musculature of the body, and the deep drilling, seen in Laocoön’s hair and beard, are all characteristic elements of the Hellenistic style.

Global Connections: Greco-Buddhist Style

Sculptural Buddhas made in the Gandharan region (located in the area between present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) in the Kushan dynasty are often described as having a “Greco-Roman” or “Greco-Buddhist” aesthetic. As compared to the Buddhas produced during the same time in Mathura (a northern Indian city), they are less stylized, with more naturalistic facial features, proportions, and drapery (see Figure \(\PageIndex{21}\)). The European scholars who applied the Greco-Buddhist label to the Gandharan Buddhas believed that this hybrid style was the result of a cultural syncretism between Classical Greek and Buddhist cultures, which came into close contact during the thousand years following Alexander the Great’s 4th century conquests.

Figure \(\PageIndex{21}\): Buddha from Gandhara, c. 2nd–3rd century C.E., Gandhara, schist (Tokyo National Museum, photo: public domain)

Gandhara itself was positioned, as the British Museum puts it, “at the ‘crossroads of Asia,’” and “has always been an ancient transit zone,” one “certainly well known to the Greeks in the fifth century BCE.” They continue, “As a result of the various cultures that either settled or moved along these trade routes, [Gandharan] sculptures have taken on a distinctive style, combining Graeco-Roman, Indian, Chinese, and Central Asian influences.” This hybrid style is evident in the graceful and elegant Gandharan Head of the Buddha, which pairs stylized, almost geometric eyebrows and hair with a more naturalistic nose, mouth, and the distinctive inward-gazing, heavy-lidded eyes.

Other scholars, however, have contested the “Greco-Buddhist” label, arguing for a more nuanced understanding of, and approach to, the style. In his paper for Journal of Art Historiography, Michael Falser interrogates the construction of the term “Graeco-Buddhist Style of Gandhara.” Put simply, Falser would like the Gandharan style to be understood by and studied for its own merits. He argues that conceiving of this style as a Eurasian hybrid, rather than its own unique style, stems from a problematic art historical trend of assigning essentializing labels such as “Classical Greek” or “Buddhist.” Instead of considering the Gandharan artists as being influenced by Classical ones, Falser champions a “nationalist appropriation” of the style. He encourages art historians to consider decolonial approaches to understanding the Gandharan aesthetics and artistic innovation as a distinct and “valid cultural heritage of the nation states of Pakistan and Afghanistan.”

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Article in this section:

• Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, "Lysippos, Farnese Hercules," in Smarthistory, December 9, 2015 (CC BY-NC-SA)
• Boundless Art History, “The Hellenistic Period.” (CC BY SA)