5.2: Dutch Golden Age (1600 – 1672)

Introduction

The merchant class became wealthy, giving them extra income. Located on the Atlantic as one of the major gateways to Europe, the trading routes to Asia, and the new shipping lanes to the new world, the Netherlands controlled much of the import and export business. The Netherlands means lowlands, a country below sea level, developed by controlling the seas yet using the oceans for their economic success. By the 17^th century, they were freed from decades-long rule by the Spanish, building their own very prosperous prominence with a significant merchant and middle class. The wealth of the people, not just the elite, was responsible for the growth and the burgeoning popularity of artists and their work. Nationalism became the Golden Age in the Netherlands. Art no longer depicted the elaborate Catholic religion and images; instead, artists depicted realism, the life, and styles of the ordinary person as ideal images.

The art market in the Netherlands was so prolific, that paintings for sale were found in all types of stores or taverns. The guilds painstakingly recorded every piece of art and its sale, fining anyone not complying with the laws and ensuring authentic works from the thousands of painters. Art portrayed the new lifestyles of half the population; spotlessly clean houses, luxury items, portraits of the typical person, and food from around the world imported by the vast merchant class. The other half was not so lucky; laboring 14 hours a day, risky voyages to the new ports, low wages, child labor, and the poorhouse.  

Rembrandt van Rijn

The nose is one of the most complex parts of the human face for the artist; long, graceful, wide, pockmarked, gross, noticeable, furrowed, or smooth, the nose seems to become the part of the image conjured by the artist, not the sitter. Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669) appeared to paint the nose to the height of perfection as one would reflect the sheen of velvet or the stiffness of a ruff.

In his portraits and self-portraits, he angles the sitter's face in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always forms the line of demarcation between brightly illuminated and shadowy areas. A Rembrandt face is a face partially eclipsed, and the nose, bright and obvious, thrusting into the riddle of halftones, serves to focus the viewer's attention upon, and to dramatize, the division between a flood of light – an overwhelming clarity – and a brooding duskiness. If the sitter is the lead actor of a performance…, then the nose is his understudy on the stage of the face. The nose stands in the center…and demands we notice it.[1] 

Rembrandt created over eighty self-portraits of oil, etching, and drawings, each unique, depicting him at different stages of his life with distinctive images, reflective studies of a face and the nose as the border of light and shadow. He had to use the totality of lines and strokes on the copper plate to create the images in his etchings. With the brush and color, he could build up layers of paint, producing accurate imperfections of the face, wrinkles and warts, focused light, and deep shadows. The Self Portrait with Wide Nose (2.2.1) was one of his early self-portraits in 1628, etched with pen and brown ink on paper. His face still has characteristics of a young man with wide nostrils, the nose flattened on the side, and his eyes small and unimportant to the image.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\):  Self Portrait with Wide Nose (1628, etching, pen, and brown ink on paper, 7.1 x 5.9 cm) Public Domain

The etching, Self-Portrait in a Cap (2.2.2) depicts Rembrandt in 1630 appearing to whistle; his long nose has a pyramidal shape, the nostrils flared and a look of surprise or distress on his face, and his eyes are still small but widened, adding to the visual feeling. In this portrait, he uses the shadow on the right side of his nose to demonstrate the light source.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\):  Self Portrait in a Cap (1630, etching) Public Domain

In Self Portrait Wearing a Toque and a Gold Chain 1633 (2.2.3), with the dark brown velvet and the golden chain to represent a reward from royalty, he portrayed himself as a successful businessman, a look he used in many of his other self-portraits. As in most of his portraits and this image, Rembrandt has the light shining from the left side of the face, highlighting his confident expression. Using only shades of green, white, gray, the deep red of carmine, and the darker tones of ochre yellow, he masterfully used brushstrokes to build the tiny hairs of his mustache, small pores of his face, and the triangular shape of the large nose.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\):  Self Portrait Wearing a Toque and a Gold Chain (1633, oil on oak panel, 70.4 x 54 cm) Public Domain

By 1660, Rembrandt used the well-established style, yet each image was different, depicting a man at various stages of life. Self Portrait at the Easel (2.2.4) immediately focuses the eye on the illumination of the white cap painted with noticeable brushstrokes. Light moves down to the right side of his face, a little darker. His hand and the easel are in shadows, knobs of paint visible on the easel. The wrinkles and marks of aging are on his face, small patches of grey hair beginning to show.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\):  Self-Portrait at the Easel (1660, oil on canvas, 111 x 85 cm) Public Domain

By 1660, Rembrandt used the well-established style, yet each image was different, depicting a man at various stages of life. Self Portrait at the Easel (2.2.5) immediately focuses the eye on the illumination of the white cap painted with noticeable brushstrokes. Light moves down to the right side of his face, a little darker. His hand and the easel are in shadows, knobs of paint visible on the easel. The wrinkles and marks of aging are on his face, small patches of grey hair beginning to show.

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): Self-Portrait (1669, oil on canvas, 86 x 70.5 cm) Public Domain

Rembrandt usually painted the portraits of his subjects in half-lengths, concentrating on the face and letting the rest of the body hidden in the shadows of dark clothing, a style followed by other Dutch painters. He was the most sought-after painter of portraits, in high demand from prominent guild members and the city elite. People wanted to be painted as they looked in life; moral, righteous, financially established, and alive. Rembrandt usually posed the person against a simple, plain background in dark clothing and a highlighted item; a gold chain, a white ruff, or a hat. Light came from the right side of the face causing illumination and shadows. A cap on a man caused extra shadows while the stark white of a ruff on the neck brought additional light. Rembrandt followed conventional standards of lighting, the high rounded forehead, a long, narrow patrician nose with the mouth usually closed.

The Portrait of Haesje Jacobsdr. van Cleyburg (2.2.6), painted in 1634, depicts a woman sure of herself, idealizing the fifty-one-year-old woman with smooth, unwrinkled skin, and a perfect complexion. Her stiffly starched white hat and the large ruff help reflect the light onto her face, evening out the shadows. Her long nose dominates the face, the light shining directly on the top and the left side recessed into the shadows. Her dark clothing recedes into the dark background letting the artist focus on the face.  

Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): Portrait of Haesje Jacobsdr. van Cleyburg (1634, oil on panel, 68.6 x 53.4 cm) Public Domain     

The Merchant Nicolaes van Bambeeck (2.2.7) was a successful merchant who wore the usual dark clothing but is posed in front of a light background for his portrait in 1641. His face is turned into the three-quarter position; however, the left side is almost hidden in the shadows. The bright light on his right side brings his nose into a profile view, and his eye stares out at the viewer. The reflection from the lace-trimmed collar added the additional light while the wide-brimmed hat cast shadows on the left.  

Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\): The Merchant Nicolaes van Bambeeck (1641, oil on canvas, 105.5 x 84 cm) Public Domain

Rembrandt frequently made multiple images of a person throughout the years, especially those who were patrons. Jan Six was a wealthy man and commissioned several works from Rembrandt, lending money to Rembrandt to pay his debts. The etching Portrait of Jan Six (2.2.8) portrays Six in his library by the window. It was unusual for Rembrandt to include a window or light source in his paintings, however in etchings, he added more surrounding scenery. The face, hair, and one hand are brightly reflected in the light while other details in the room are evident.

Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\):  Portrait of Jan Six (1647, etching print, drypoint print and burin on paper, 24.3 x 19.2 cm) Public Domain                                          

The painting of Jan Six (2.2.9) does not appear to be posed but rather a person leaving, one glove already on his hand. The face has a frown, and his head is tipped forward as though to speak about something distasteful, perhaps about the money Rembrandt owes him.  He is larger than the thin young man in the etching, dressed in elegant clothing, his nose dominating his face.

Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\): Jan Six (1654, oil on panel, 112 x 102 cm) Public Domain    

Other artists usually painted group portraits with overly posed people, displaying little energy and stilted expressions. Rembrandt, however, brought life to the painting, and interaction between the participants. The Syndics of the Amsterdam Drapers' Guild (2.2.10) depicts the men in conversation, looking toward the viewer; does the book's page have the wrong information about whatever they are viewing and discussing? As customary, the light source shines on the right sides of their faces and illuminates the side of the table covering and decorative walls, the men are dressed in dark clothing, only the top part of the body visible.

Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\): The Syndics of the Amsterdam Drapers' Guild (1662, oil on canvas, 191.5 x 279 cm)  Public Domain                  

In Amsterdam, a few times each week, one of the major surgeons gave an anatomy lesson to aspiring physicians, and once a year, the lesson was open to anyone. The public lecture occurred in the winter, so the smell of the body was not overpowering. Rembrandt supposedly attended a session given by Dr. Tulp demonstrating the muscles of the arm and their attachments. As the doctor uses his right hand to dissect the arm and hand of the corpse, he uses his left hand to demonstrate how the muscles and tendons in the arm and hand would have moved. The attention and concentration on the faces of the surgeons are evident in the painting, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp (2.2.11). The light shone on the men's faces and was centered on the corpse in the center. The bodies of the men are enveloped in dark clothing and subordinate in the painting. The white ruffs and collars provide the focus and additional illumination of the faces.

Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\): The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp (1632, oil on canvas, 169.5 x 216.5 cm) Public Domain    

On 4 October 1669, Rembrandt died, and in tradition, the notary came to his house and took an inventory of his worldly goods. There were the things he used for painting; brushes, paint, an easel, a few household items; chairs, tables, dishes, candlesticks, and numerous drawings and paintings, all that were left by an artist named Rembrandt van Rijn.

Johannes Vermeer

Although Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675) was a respected painter and belonged to the painter's guild, he produced very few paintings, only about forty-five, and of those paintings, only thirty-six can be found today. Most painters created hundreds of paintings for the broad market; however, his work commanded high prices and sold well enough to support his wife and eleven children regardless of the small numbers. Initially, he was highly influenced by the work of Caravaggio, whose style of work formed the Utrecht school with extensive scenes lit by artificial means of candles or lanterns. Later, he developed his style, placing one or two people performing daily activities inside very detailed interiors. He generally used the light from a window or some other natural mechanism.

Many believe the Girl with Pearl Earring (2.2.12), painted with oil on canvas, is the Netherlands version of the Mona Lisa. The girl is not engaged in any activity, only sitting in a dark space, the light shining on her face and seeming to have just turned her head. She has an enigmatic look with parted lips as though ready to speak. Her tightly formed turban provides the border for her face, the blue contrasting against the other colors of the portrait. Her oversized pearl earring reflects the light source and is the only piece of jewelry that captures the eye.

Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\): Girl with Pearl Earring (1665, oil on canvas, 44.5 x 39 cm) Public Domain          

The Milkmaid (2.2.13) is so realistically executed it almost appears to be a photograph. Vermeer generally used a limited palette of primary colors, and in this painting, yellow forms the center of the image with blue for the apron and tablecloth. The milk pouring from the pitcher's center gives motion to the otherwise still scene and draws the viewer into the painting. Vermeer added small points of light to reflectively move throughout the scene; along the rim of the pitcher, the rolls of bread, off the forehead of the milkmaid.

Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\): The Milkmaid (1660, oil on canvas, 45.5 x 41 cm) Public Domain

In A Lady and Two Gentlemen (2.2.14), Vermeer uses the brilliant red dress to illuminate the woman turning to look outward, making the viewer wonder what she is thinking. One of the men appears to be courting the woman while the other sits in the background, looking in another direction. The light from the window illuminates the bright white of the cloth, pitcher, and yellow fruit, giving the painting incredible depth. Vermeer used patterns as seen in the geometric floor pattern and the stained glass in the window. Napoleon, I stole the work as part of his rewards of war, and it stayed in Paris for a long time before returning to the Netherlands.   

Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\): A Lady and Two Gentlemen (1659, oil on canvas, 78 x 68 cm) Public Domain

Judith Leyster

Judith Leyster (1609-1660) was a talented artist who had her workshop (unusual for a female artist), painted her works, and taught others. She was also the first female admitted to the Painters' Guild. Most of her paintings were made between 1629 through 1635 when she married and had children, reducing her time as an artist. She was known as an exceptional artist in her era but little known to history until modern times. A writer from the period said,

"There also have been many experienced women in the field of painting who are still renowned in our time, and who could compete with men. Among them, one excels exceptionally, Judith Leyster…"[2]

Some of her work was attributed to Frans Hals, and only in 1892, when her distinctive monogram (the initials J L and a star) was discovered below the violinist's shoe on the painting of the Carousing Couple (2.2.15), was more of her work correctly identified as hers. Over two hundred years, her work was generally not assigned or was believed to be from her husband or Hals. After the original discovery, historians found her unusual monogram on her other works and attributed them to her. She used brushstrokes similar to Hals, loose and bold, infusing life into her portraits, following the tenebrist style of contrasting light and dark for dramatic effect.  

The Carousing Couple (2.2.15) portrays two people having fun, enjoying music and wine; he appears engrossed in the music while she views him with adoring eyes. The light-colored faces and shirts provide the beginning of the focal point in the middle of the portrait; the dark upper half forms the background. Leyster elegantly paints each detail of the clothing, from the lace to the tassels on his pants. The one less realistic image is the way the man is holding the violin.   

Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\): Carousing Couple (1630, oil on panel, 68 x 54 cm) Public Domain      

Self Portrait (2.2.16) portrays Leyster sitting in front of her easel, appearing to turn and face the viewer, seeming to smile as she knows who she sees. Her white collar helps reflect the light, bringing the face into focus, although most historians do not think she wore the dressier clothing when she painted. She used blue on the musician's clothing she is painting, the color bringing the person out of the grayer background. In her hands, she holds her palette and brushes, her brush parallel to the musician's bow on the painting.

Figure \(\PageIndex{16}\): Self Portrait (ca 1630, oil on canvas, 74.6 x 65.1 cm) Public Domain       

She generally painted portraits of musicians, children, and domestic scenes. The Young Flute Player (2.2.17) demonstrates her interest in both music and children. The boy's face, looking at some bright and unknown light, is overly white on the right side of his face compared to the deep shadows on the other side of the face. Although Leyster used many tones of brown and gray, each element, the chair, his clothing, and the instruments, all are well defined and visible. 

Figure \(\PageIndex{17}\): Young Flute Player (1630s, oil on canvas, 73 x 62 cm) Public Domain   

Frans Hals

Frans Hals (1582/83-1666) was believed to have a rough style to his work, moving his brush quickly with a looser style and bringing a change to portraiture in the seventeenth century; a livelier style. He illustrated all levels of society, from the elite to the fishwife, and did not idealize the faces; instead, he gave them distinct personalities and expressions. "He becomes so clever at last that exact tone, light and shade, and modeling are all obtained with a few marked and fluid strokes of the brush."[3] Jester with a Lute (2.2.19), oil on canvas, depicts a young man, his head twisted as though looking at a nearby person and a small smile, perhaps a secret between them. The turned body gives the portrait a feeling of movement instead of the stylized and static portrait. The figure is illuminated by light from the side, almost fully exposing the turned face, leaving minimal shadows.

Figure \(\PageIndex{19}\): Jester with Lute (ca 1623-1624, oil on canvas, 70 x 62 cm) Public Domain     

Shrovetide (2.2.20), done in oil on canvas, depicts the celebration of Mardi Gras, an indulgent party before the disciplines imposed by Lent. Theatrical performances were noteworthy, and one of the characters has a sausage hanging from his hat, the other wearing a necklace of fish and eggs, all foods of the Mardi Gras celebration. Women could not act in the play; the woman in the center of the painting is probably a young boy dressed in drag.  The lace of the collar and the luminescence of the sleeves brings the viewer into the center of the painting. Each face has a different look and appears engaged in their thoughts as the dark clothing disappears into the background. 

Figure \(\PageIndex{19}\): Merrymakers at Shrovetide (1616-17, oil on canvas, 51 x 39 cm) Public Domain

The Officers of the St. George Civic Guard (2.2.20), painted with oil on canvas, is a sizeable group-sized portrait. None of the members are staged or posed in a static position; each person is looking in different directions giving the painting movement, depicting activity found in a group discussion. The clothing, hats, ruffs, and collars indicate positions or occupations, forming one civic guard. The white collars and ruffs provide the perfect foil to set off the characteristics of the faces. Hals use of red, yellow, and light blue moves the viewer from person to person, not resting on one area.

Figure \(\PageIndex{20}\): Officers of the St. George Civic Guard (1627, oil on canvas, 179 x 257.5 cm) Public Domain

Landscapes

Landscape painting became an important genre during the 1600s when a landscape style was developed based on the interesting and unique characteristics of the landscape in the Netherlands. The flat land and weather that generated remarkable cloud formations created unusual light structures and artistic views of windmills, the sky or trees, focal points for the artists. Landscape paintings were found in most homes, representing the people's pride in their country and its images, reflective of God's creation. Landscape (derived from the Dutch landscape) painting was a new concept in this century, with Jacob van Ruisdael as the most famous landscape painter.

Jacob van Ruisdael

Jacob van Ruisdael (1628/1629-1682) painted Landscape with Windmills Near Haarlem (2.2.21) with oil on panel. The two windmills are viewed against the spectacular clouds forming in the sky. The church in Haarlem sits in the far distance, a testimony to the expansive flatness of the land. The monochromatic colors are punctuated by the light pathway and the chimney on the house.

Figure \(\PageIndex{21}\): Landscape with Windmills near Haarlem (1654-1656, oil on panel, 31.5 x 33.9 cm) Public Domain

View of Haarlem with Bleaching Grounds (2.2.22), painted with oil on canvas, is set in the countryside with a view of Haarlem in the background, identified by the church. The landscape of the city is set against the backdrop of billowing cloud formations. The sun was occasionally visible from the light patterns on the ground, as he used light and shadow to draw the eye into the painting. In the foreground is a linen factory with fabric laid on the ground to catch the sun's rays and help in the drying process. The countryside is flat; however, a dune appears at the bottom of the painting, perhaps where the artist stood to sketch the scene. The landscapes were not painted 'plein aire' as seen in Impressionism, instead sketched outside and painted in the studio.  

Figure \(\PageIndex{22}\): View of Haarlem with Bleaching Grounds (ca 1665, oil on canvas, 62.2 x 55.2) Public Domain                                                                             

Still Life

Stilleven or still life painting became popular in the Netherlands when urbanization increased, emphasizing one's home and everyday life. Different subtypes of paintings grew from the floral arrangements that dominated the first part of the century to vanitas, kitchen arrangements, and hunting trophies. The images in the painting represented the horticulture and aspects of life in the Netherlands, and they also had symbolic meanings. Different flowers represented some form of action of God's life, while insects or reptiles may depict the transitory meaning of life. The painters also used chiaroscuro techniques with dark backgrounds and brilliant elements in the foregrounds, applying luminous colors to develop the differences between the light and the darker shadows. Because of the high interest in flowers and gardens, still, life paintings were highly prized. Rachel Ruysch, who painted flowers, sold her paintings for 750 to 1200 guilders, while Rembrandt seldom sold most of his work for above 500 guilders.[4]  

Rachel Ruysch

Rachel Ruysch (1664-1750) specialized in painting flowers, working for almost seventy years. Her father was a scientist, and early in her life, she learned how to accurately record nature, flowers, and woodlands helping to draw specimens from his collections. She was an apprentice painter at fifteen and painted for clients by the time she was eighteen. She had ten children yet was a very prolific painter and famous for her flower still lifes, producing over 250 paintings. Flowers on a Tree Trunk (2.2.23), painted with oil on canvas, contrast the dark undergrowth by the dried stump, moss, stones, and tiny insects with the bright flowers, the half-dead elements, and the vibrant living blooms. The light reflects off the white flowers focusing on the precision and beauty of the flowers. The light also reflects on the side of the rock, bringing the eye down to the small life forms in the painting. 

Figure \(\PageIndex{23}\): Flowers on a Tree Trunk (early 1700s, oil on canvas, 93 x 74 cm) Public Domain  

Maria van Oosterwijck

Maria van Oosterwijck (1630-1693) painted floral still lifes using real flowers. Flower Still Life (2.2.24) was painted with oil on canvas. Tulips were the coveted flower in the Netherlands, a relatively new introduction, and Oosterwijck used two highly patterned and rare tulips as the focal points of her painting. One of the blossoms already started to fall apart, representing the temporary status of human life. The small insects also testify to the transitory positions of life. Oosterwijck was a well-known painter; however, she was not allowed in the painter's guild.

Figure \(\PageIndex{24}\): Flower Still Life (1669, oil on canvas, 37.1 x 46 cm) Public Domain  

Osias Beert

Osias Beert (1580-1623) was one of the most well-known still-life painters whose specialty was painting culinary images and florals. He depicted the vicious oysters as a centerpiece in many paintings and surrounded them with a full table, including drinks. Still-Life with Oysters and Pastries (2.2.25) was painted with oil on copper. The light shines on the oysters sitting in the foreground. The plate of pastries counterbalances the oysters on top of the slender silver-stemmed bowl in the middle of the painting and the bright, yellow lemons.

Figure \(\PageIndex{25}\): Still-Life with Oysters and Pastries (1610, oil on copper, 46.6 x 66 cm) Public Domain  

Adriaen van Utrecht

Adriaen van Utrecht (1599-1652) was considered a master of complex still lifes, using unusual scenes of unrelated birds, fruit, vegetables, and whatever else he needed to overflow in the canvas. Banquet Still Life (2.2.26) is considered one of the premier examples of a still life of the period. Painted with oil on canvas, the large, red lobster lies in the middle of the painting. Fruit and food of all types cover the table and drop onto the floor. The squirrel already started to eat as the dog and parrot appear poised and ready. Musical instruments and dishes fill while cloths form drapes and add to the movement of the dropping food.

Figure \(\PageIndex{26}\): Banquet Still Life (1644, oil on canvas, 185 x 242.5 cm) Public Domain 

Frans Snijders

Frans Snijders (1579-1657) originally painted still lifes with flowers and fruit, later switching his focus to animals, both in the wild and in still lifes, and was considered a specialist in painting animals. Still Life with Fruit, Dead Game, Vegetables, Live Animals (2.2.27) is one of his famous compositions. Monkeys were considered stupid and greedy, and this painting depicts the monkey grabbing fruit, and furtively looking around. The fruit was a symbol of life, delicious yet perishing in the end. Snijder used more color in his paintings, drawing the viewer into every aspect of the images.

Figure \(\PageIndex{27}\): Still Life with Fruit, Dead Game, Vegetables, Live Animals (oil on canvas, 81 x 118 cm) Public Domain

The latter part of the 17^th century was a time of rapid change, and the convulsions of change jolted the Netherlands. England started to control the seas, and the French took some of the northern territories. The Netherlands was a small country, and the large merchant class was no match for the mighty armies, and they slipped into a long period of diminished loss, its art languishing also.

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[1] Taylor, M. (2007) Rembrandt’s Nose: of Flesh and Spirit in the Masters Portraits, Distributed Art Publishers.

[2] Smith, D. (2016). The Paris Review, Daughters of the Guild. Retrieved from https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2016/04/04/daughters-of-the-guild/.

[3] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), “Hals, Frans”. Encyclopaedia Britannica (11^th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

[4] Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Ruysch. 3 December 2018.