2.4: The Mughal Empire
- Page ID
- 282739
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Government and Economy
The Mughal Empire became the second wealthiest empire after the Ming. It was established in 1526 and had about 100 to 150 million inhabitants. Similar to the other two Turkish empires, the Mughals used gunpowder technology including cannons and firearms to take control of India. Although the empire was formed through military conquest, one key aspect of the creation of this empire that differed from other surrounding territories was the lack of subjugation of the other tribes. In fact, there were opportunities through bureaucracy and local governance for non-Muslims. India is culturally very diverse and Hinduism, the main religion, did not have just one text but numerous texts and creeds. In comparison with the Middle East, there were fewer Muslim conversions in India. The imposition of the tolerance tax there was enforced sporadically at best. Additionally, Indians who converted could not hope for increased opportunities in the higher levels of government where the Turks continued to dominate.
For the most part, the Mughal economy benefited from the growing demand for Indian goods. Similar to China, India was a manufacturing center. In particular, the region of Bengal was famous for its silk and cotton textiles. As a result, precious metals flowed in from Africa, Europe and the Middle East. India then exported precious metals to China. Silver was minted into rupees. Steady revenues and an efficient imperial administrations enabled the building of a network of imperial roads to link the empire together. This was no small task considering India’s previous centuries of disunity and regional separatism as well as its size.
Nevertheless, the Mughals were a land-based empire that relied heavily on agriculture rather than commerce. The increasing prosperity of the Indian Ocean trading system was not the mainstay of the government’s wealth. Additionally, the Mughals did not have a navy in the Indian Ocean and showed little interest in becoming a naval power. In fact, the capital of India, Delhi, was a landlocked city far from the coast.
Akbar
Under Akbar (1556-1605) the empire was at its height and expanded southwards. Deals with Hindu chieftains through favors and intermarriage among notables contributed to growth and stability of the empire. Similar to Abbas I, Akbar divided the empire into provinces, and authority was divided between the civil, military, and religious figures who were responsible to the emperor. Village elites maintained law and order while corrupt officials were dismissed.
Overall, there was harmony between different cultures under Akbar. He saw himself as an Indian ruler, not as a foreign invader and understood from the beginning his dynasty’s success must depend on gaining the support and participation of all Indians. Therefore, Akbar abolished enslaving war prisoners and the forcible conversion to Islam. Additionally, Hindu law was applied in disputes between Hindus, and local Hindus kings and princes governed their own people. Akbar eliminated a tax on Hindu pilgrims traveling to sacred sites and the tolerance tax on non-Muslims. In Figure 2.4.1, Akbar is seated at Ibādat Khāna (House of Worship) which he used as a debating house. Akbar is listening to different religious leader. The two men in black are Catholic Jesuit priests.
Jesuit Father Monserrate visited Akbar in India in 1582.
Discussion Questions
- What are the impressions of Akbar?
- What are Akbar's policies with Hindus?
When the priests first saw him he was thirty-eight years of age. It is hard to exaggerate how accessible he makes himself to all who wish audience of him. For he creates an opportunity almost every day for any of the common people or of the nobles to see him and converse with him; and he endeavours to show himself pleasant-spoken and affable rather than severe toward all who come to speak with him. It is very remarkable how great an effect this courtesy and affability has in attaching to him the minds of his subjects. For in spite of his very heterodox attitude toward the religion of Muhammad, and in spite also of the fact that Muslims regard such an attitude as an unforgivable offense, Akbar has not yet been assassinated. He has an acute insight, and shows much wise foresight both in avoiding dangers and in seizing favorable opportunities for carrying out his designs...
He is a great patron of learning, and always keeps around him erudite men, who are directed to discuss before him philosophy, theology, and religion, and to recount to him the history of great kings and glorious deeds of the past. He has an excellent judgment and a good memory, and has attained to a considerable knowledge of many subjects by means of constant and patient listening to such discussions. . .
Akbar has about twenty Hindu chieftains as ministers and counsellors to assist both in the work of governing the empire and in the control of the royal household. They are devoted to him, and are very wise and reliable in conducting public business. They are always with him, and are admitted to the innermost parts of the palace, which is a privilege not allowed even to the Mongol [Mughal] nobles. However, he is wont to entrust the provincial governorships to chiefs. . . . who are related to him. Some of these chiefs also act not only as tutors but also as guardians to his sons. His object in arranging this is to attach the chiefs to himself by a yet closer bond of affection, and also to provide protectors for his children from the malice of his life-long enemies. . . .
The King exacts enormous sums in tribute from the provinces of his empire, which is wonderfully rich and fertile both for cultivation and pasture, and has a great trade both in exports and imports. He also derives much revenue from the hoarded fortunes of the great nobles, which by law and custom all come to the King on their owners’ death.
The Commentary of Father Monserrate, S. J. On his Journey to the Court of Akbar, trans. from Latin by J. S. Hoyland and annotated by S. N. Banerjee, Oxford University Press, in the Public Domain
The openness and toleration under Akbar were a marked contrast in India with Europe where religious strife tore the continent apart. Christians, Muslims, and Hindus all coexisted peacefully. In fact, Akbar had a Hindu and a Christian wife, and his palace had temples to all three faiths. Akbar even celebrated Hindu festivals. He sought to merge the best of all Indian traditions with those of the Mughals. For this reason, Akbar brought in scholars from all of the major religions. He wanted there to be a religion with universal appeal in India.
- What made the Mughal economy so vibrant? What were some weaknesses?
- How was there harmony under Akbar?