1.7: The Function of Myth in Ancient Greece

When students first study myths in depth, they inevitably seek a social categorization, asking, whether these myths were considered stories for entertainment or education, or were they considered religion as a basis for worship? On a basic level, yes and yes. But any subject worthy of study, and myths most certainly are, often serve much more complex roles in their native culture.

The Greeks had no sacred text like the Judeo-Christian Bible, Indian Veda, or Islamic Quran (Koran) which provided guidelines for worship, or an ultimate truth, or even a doctrine explaining their relationship to their gods. They were informed of their relationship with their gods through rituals, public festivals, private home ceremonies, sacrifices, and through their myths and artwork which also served important political and social functions. They learned to respect their gods based upon the individual god’s aspects, such as the fearsome lightning bolt of Zeus which could strike the earth—and people—when the god was displeased. They appreciated the life-giving rays of the early morning sun which was driven by the youthful sun deity, Apollo. Likewise, the gentle morning light that lit the earth was the gift of Eos, the dawn goddess. Fertility goddesses were abundant not only in Ancient Greece, but across the Ancient World, and the Greeks were known for grafting new gods into their pantheon when they encountered a helpful god through trade or travel. This accounts for the plethora of solar and lunar gods (including Apollo and Helios, Artemis and Selene) and fertility gods, all of whom might influence survival. Concerned for a newly planted crop, a Greek farmer might offer prayers and sacrifice of grain to Demeter or wine for Dionysis. And should an army need support in a military effort, they might appeal to Nike, Ares or, better, Athene, who amongst her many roles represented tactical intelligence in warfare. In this world, rites, sacrifices, and rituals were carefully woven throughout the personal and public aspects of the nation and served to bind the people together and to prop up civic institutions.

Appealing to the beneficial aspects of each of the gods worked both for insurance and for building political stability. Based on Homer’s Iliad, these gods chose favorites not only in specific mortals, but also in cities and worked to protect their favorites so long as said favorites honored the gods first, Athene more so than any other Olympian.

Athene’s miraculous birth is recorded both in art and in references within many other myths, reminding readers of its significance. Zeus' first wife was Metis [MEE-tis], the goddess of wise counsel; however, a prophecy had warned him that a male child by Metis would cause his downfall. To avoid falling victim to his long family tradition of patricide, Zeus swallowed the already pregnant Metis, and in doing so consumed her female intelligence: wisdom. Some time later, he complained to Hephaestus of a terrible headache, to which the blunt god of weaponry offered assistance, via an ax. In what must have been a cruel, but necessary stroke, he opened a birth passage on Zeus' forehead, through which the goddess sprang fully grown and fully armored. Titanic birthing pains aside, Zeus and those who attended the birth were awed both by the shining goddess who embodied wisdom, military intelligence, weaving arts, and whom—best of all—was instantly her father’s best ally and newest favorite child.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): A recreation in modern materials of the lost colossal statue by Pheidias, Athena Parthenos by Alan LeQuire (1990) is housed in a full-scale replica of the Parthenon in Nashville’s Centennial Park. At forty-two feet tall, she is the largest indoor sculpture in the western world [originally crafted from ivory and gold, which stood thirty-seven feet high]. In her hand she holds Niké, goddess of victory, across her chest is the aegis of Medusa, and to her side are a shield and helmet, and a coiled serpent representative of Erichthonius. (Free Art License, by Wikimedia. Photo by Dean Dixon, sculpture by Alan LeQuire)

The goddess Athene, whose strange birth foreshadows her formidable role, is a manifestation of complexities that wise mortals would’ve learned to navigate. Born fully formed from the forehead of her father, she entered the world as a virgin goddess, wearing armor representative of her military aspects. Yet, she also serves as patron to the weaving arts, an odd contradiction to the destructive nature of war, or less odd if we consider that textiles were often used to record military conquests. Her introduction to the pantheon was a seismic moment for the other deities, captured in the Parthenon (Elgin) Marbles on display at the British Museum. In what remains of the sculptures, the moment of Athene’s birth is viewed by the Olympians with varying degrees of surprise, wonder and even alarm. One goddess, possibly Hebe [HEE-bee], is depicted running away. As the youthful cupbearer to the gods, her reaction to such a traumatic event is understandable.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Parthenon Marbles, from the east pediment, British Museum, London. A goddess,described by the Acropolis Museum as Artemis, or possibly Hebe or Hekate (far right), flees from the birth of Athene. (CC BY SA, Wikimedia)

The foundational myth of Athens begins with a contest. The citizens of this powerful new citadel sought a patron god to protect their city, and given their proximity to the Mediterranean sea, Poseidon was a natural candidate. Athene was another possibility, perhaps due to her multiple jurisdictions or her proximity to Zeus as his favorite child. Both gods offered a token gift to the city, a saltwater spring from Poseidon and an olive tree from Athene. The saltwater spring seemed an unusual and unusable choice, saltwater being undrinkable, and again, considering the closeness to the shore, salt and fish could be obtained easily. Athene’s gift, however, was intriguing. Olive trees provided a beneficial fruit that could be pressed for oil or cured for later consumption. Additionally, the tree would offer invaluable shade during the hot Greek summers. Given the quality of the gift and the impressive attributes of the goddess, Athene was their natural choice. But Poseidon was a tempestuous god, one who embodied the uncontrollable forces of nature, and one who didn’t take this social slight well. The god raged against the city, sending his “bull from the ocean” to demolish the city and its inhabitants. The citizens ran in terror, heading away from the tidal wave and toward the highest point in the city, the Acropolis, which literally means “high place.” Once they’d climbed the hill, they were protected by the goddess. In thanks for her early act of protection, the people built a temple to honor her, the Parthenon.