19: Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics

Chapter Objectives

The purpose of this chapter is to:

• Understand and apply the rules for correct usage of written English
• Understand and apply the rules for correct English grammar
• Understand and apply the rules for correct English punctuation

Why is it important to know about grammar, usage, and punctuation?

When it comes to language, being correct means knowing the rules that a given culture has established to interpret the language of individuals. Many years ago, "ain't" was not considered incorrect, but how would someone react to a businessperson using that word today? We speak of this as usage. There are far more usage rules than grammar rules, and they are far more difficult to master. Many of them you just have to learn, and after you learn them, you have to use them over and over and over in order to incorporate them into your language.

It is important to remember that correctness is relative to a particular situation and the “rules” for usage will continue to shift. It can be tough to keep up with all that change, which is why even a native speaker of English will find the following pages helpful. If you aren't a native speaker of English, reviewing things like parts of speech, punctuation, and common errors can be helpful in your efforts to feel more comfortable using the English language. Since writing is a tool that people will use to judge us in professional situations, this chapter can be a tool that can help you make the best choices for a given professional writing situation.

Parts of Speech

A part of speech refers to category in which we place a word. These categories can help explain the role a word plays in a sentence. In the English language, we identify words as a noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunction, or article. Understanding the parts of speech and the rules of their use can hep you identify and correct issues with sentence structure in your writing.

Nouns

A noun is a person, place, object, idea, or event. Nouns are the first words you learned as a child, and you probably have a really strong sense of what a noun is. After all, how could we possibly talk about anything if we’re unable to give it a name?

There are several subcategories of nouns which affects how we deal with them in a sentence. A proper noun can be a specific person, place, or organization. Proper nouns are capitalized because they are specific nouns. Examples of proper nouns include Morgan, Apple (the company), New York, and the Seattle Seahawks.

A common noun refers to a general group or class of people, places, or objects. One way to identify a common noun is called the “the” test. If you can use the noun with the article the (or another article like a or an) in front of it, the word is likely a common noun. Some examples include the game, the movie, and the ghost. It’s important to remember that the “the” test does not work all the time. It’s just a good guideline. Some exceptions to the “the” test would be with proper nouns mentioned above, like the Dallas Cowboys and the New York Yankees. Even though they would pass the “the” test, they are proper nouns, not common nouns.

Collective nouns are nouns such as family, team, and majority. These nouns can complicate out sentences when we have to make a decision about whether these nouns are singular or plural because we have to choose verbs that will agree with these nouns. There are no hard and fast rules here: the verb you choose to agree with the collective noun actually depends upon how you want your readers to perceive the noun. Is it a single unit or a group of individuals? Even then, it depends upon context.

Using the correct verb tense with a collective noun

In the first example below, each member went his or her separate way, so you would see the collective noun family as a group of individuals; therefore, you should use a plural verb instead of a singular verb. In the second example, the family is seen as a single unit; here you would need a singular verb to agree with the collective noun.

Example 1: The family have all gone their separate ways since Grandma died.

Example 2: The whole family is coming to my house for Thanksgiving this year. I had better learn to cook a turkey.

A verbal noun is a type of noun that is derived from a verb. It looks like a verb because of the -ing ending, but it actually functions in a sentence like a noun. Verbal nouns and gerunds (a verb or verb phrase that functions as a noun phrase and subject in a sentence) are very similar. In fact, the first two examples below are examples of verbal nouns that are also gerunds. But, a verbal noun can be more than a gerund. In the last example, the word meeting, is functioning like a noun but isn’t a noun phrase that’s the subject of a sentence. 

Verbal noun examples

Running from zombies is hard work.

Jogging is a good exercise that will help you prepare, but you have to do it every day.

We had a meeting to compare our zombie action plans.

A compound noun is a noun made up of two or more words. Sometimes, compound nouns are hyphenated, but there are many examples of compound nouns that are not. There are also compound nouns that are written as one word. Some examples include mother-in-law, full moon, and blackboard. Some compound nouns that used to be hyphenated are no longer hyphenated, and some compound nouns that used to be two words became one word. The “rules” change based upon common usage. Paper-clip is now paperclip, and healthcare is now generally considered just one word, though some people think it should be two words, health care. If you’re in doubt about how to write a compound noun, be sure to check a good online dictionary.

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Pronouns

A pronoun is a noun that takes the place of a noun or groups of nouns, and because pronouns are “standing in” for nouns, you have to be sure that the pronoun you choose to “stand in” agrees in number, person, and gender. Pronouns are actually just another type of noun, but because they’re such an important noun type and so commonly used, they’re usually classified as a separate part of speech.

Personal pronouns are pronouns that take the place of common and proper nouns and refer to people and things. Essentially, they replace the nouns for people and things when you want to make sure you are not repeating yourself by having to rename people and things all the time. For example, in the sentence "My brother is staying up late to watch a Walking Dead marathon, so he is probably going to have nightmares," the writer doesn't have to repeat the phrase "my brother" because they use the personal pronoun "he."

Personal (definite) pronouns

Personal pronouns can be singular and plural, and there are first, second, and third person personal pronouns.

	Singular	Plural
First Person	I, me	we, us
Second Person	you	you
Third Person	she, her, he, him, it	they, them

While a definite pronoun refers to a particular person or thing, indefinite pronouns do not refer to anything specific. Words like someone and everybody are indefinite pronouns, and they can also be singular or plural. The list below can be helpful to refer to when you need to use pronouns that refer to people or things in general and do not refer to anyone or anything specific. 

Indefinite pronouns

Singular	Plural	Singular or Plural
anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, something	both, few, many, several	all, any, most, none, some

Subjective and objective pronouns are pronouns that occur in either the subject or the object of the sentence. Subjective pronouns tell us who or what  the sentence is about. Objective pronouns receive the action in the sentence.

Subjective and objective pronouns

	Singular	Plural
Subjective	I, you, he, she, it	we, you, they
Objective	me, you, him, her, it	us, you, them

Sometimes, determining which pronoun we should use in a sentence can be a little confusing, especially when it comes to I and me. You might want to write:

Incorrect: My mother bought my brother and I new clothes for the first day of school.

Correct: My mother bought my brother and me new clothes for the first day of school.

The trick is to take out the other person in the sentence to see if you would use I or me. For example:

Incorrect: My mother bought I new clothes for school.

Correct: My mother bought me new clothes for school.

Possessive pronouns are pronouns that show ownership. Some possessive pronouns can be used before nouns and function as adjectives (words that describe nouns). Pronouns such as my, her, or his are possessive because you would say things like my books, her computer, and his zombie plan. Other possessive pronouns stand alone. These are pronouns such as mine, yours, hers, and his. An example would be "That book is hers."

Relative pronouns relate subordinate clauses (clauses that cannot stand alone) to the rest of a sentence. Words like that, which, who, and whom are examples of relative pronouns.

Demonstrative pronouns stand in for a thing or things, and we choose these words based on how close these things are to us. For things that are nearby, we use the pronouns this and these. For things that are far away, we use the pronouns that and those.

Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves, and are used when a pronoun is both the subject and the object of a sentence. For example, "She is going to can all of those beans for her zombie storage room herself." Reflexive pronouns can also be used to show emphasis in a sentence, as illustrated in this example: "I myself had to go through all of those web pages to find the one that would be the most helpful for our escape plan."

A common pronoun agreement error occurs when a writer uses a singular noun like student to represent students in general. Then, later, the writer may use they as a pronoun to replace student because the writer means students in general. This often occurs when people try to avoid that structure and use cumbersome word choices such as he/she, he or she, or (wo)men as there is no gender-neutral singular pronoun in the English language. Using variations like he/she is not preferred, and rewriting the sentence is a better option.

How to rewrite the sentence will depend on which style guide you are following. Both MLA and APA explicitly support using the singular they. The Chicago Manual of Style states that the singular they should be used when the person being discussed uses they/them as their personal pronouns, and has become more flexible over the use of the singular they in other circumstances as well. 

Pronoun reference errors can occur when students write about several different people or things and then use a pronoun later like she or it, but the audience has no idea what she or it refers to.

Here is a simple example to give you an idea about what a pronoun reference error looks like:

Incorrect: My mother and my aunt told me I should consider going to college, and she was right.

Here, the audience wouldn’t be sure which person the writer is referring to. Is it the mother or the aunt?

You want to be careful with your writing and make sure you’re clear and correct with your pronouns. Most of the time, slowing yourself down and working on some careful editing will reveal problems like these which can be easily corrected.

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Verbs

Verbs are the parts of speech that show action or indicate a state of being. We put them with nouns to create complete sentences. Like nouns, verbs are foundational in our vocabulary, and we generally learn verbs as children shortly after we learn nouns. 

We’ll explain the types of verbs first, to give you context and help you establish some “verb vocabulary,” but most writers will want to pay close attention to issues of tense, subject-verb agreement, and active versus passive voice in the pages that follow.

Action Verbs

Action verbs are the verbs you can probably identify as verbs quickly and easily. These are the words that show action, words like jump, run, and eat.

There are two main classes of action verbs: transitive and intransitive, and there aren’t separate lists for each class. Action verbs can be both transitive and intransitive because it all depends on the structure of the sentence.

A transitive verb expresses action toward a person or thing named in the sentence. An intransitive verb expresses action without making any reference to an object.

Transitive and Intransitive Verb Examples

Transitive	The college freshman ate Ramen noodles.	Sophia speaks French.
Intransitive	The college freshman complained loudly.	Sophia speaks fluently.

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called the helping verbs because they work with the main verb in a sentence and “help it out.” Together, the auxiliary verb and the main verb form a unit. Common auxiliary verbs include words like am, are, be, can, could, did, do, does, had, have, is, was, were, will and would.

Auxiliary Verb Examples

Steven is leaving and taking his football with him. How are we going to play now?

Her favorite team has finished at the top of the conference, so she is going to buy a team jersey. I hope she buys me one, too.

Linking Verbs

Linking verbs join or “link” the subject of a sentence with the rest of the sentence. They make a statement by linking things, as opposed to showing any kind of action.

Common linking verbs are any of the to be verbs: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, and being. However, become and seem are also common, and other verbs have the potential to be linking verbs. It really depends upon the sentence.

Linking Verb Examples

My environmental biology class is interesting because our teacher thinks Bigfoot might exist.

That house looks haunted.

Those old shoes smell funny.

Tenses

Verbs tense refers to the different forms of verbs that are used to indicate when in time an action happens.  

It’s important to understand tense because you want to be consistent with your verb tenses in your writing. It’s a common mistake to shift tenses without realizing it. This discussion of tenses can increase your “tense awareness,” which will lead to fewer errors.

Let’s take the verb to eat as an example and see how it looks in the different tenses:

Tense	Example
present tense (present point in time)	I eat dinner.
present progressive (present action of limited duration)	I am eating dinner.
past tense (specific point in the past)	I ate dinner yesterday.
past progressive (past action of limited duration)	I was eating.
present perfect (completed action from a point in the past ending at or near present)	I have eaten dinner.
past perfect (past action completed before another action also in the past)	I had just eaten dinner when the phone rang.
future tense (action that will happen at a future point in time)	I will eat dinner later.

When it comes to verb tenses, it’s important to be consistent and to be aware of any shifts. If you shift, there needs to be a reason for the shift. Also, APA will often require the use of past tense, while MLA generally requires present tense, even if the words have been written in the past.

APA vs. MLA verb tense examples

APA: Smith (2009) wrote, “This verb stuff is confusing” (p. 10)

MLA: Smith writes, “This verb stuff is confusing” (10).

You can review Verb Tense Shift for a more in-depth explanation of APA recommendations for verb tense usage.  

Subject-Verb Agreement

The subject of a sentence may be either singular or plural, and the verb selection should match the subject. The task sounds simple, but it’s not always easy to make the subject and verb match without some thought. Here are some tips to help you avoid subject-verb agreement errors:

Agreement rules with examples

Rule: When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.

Example: Suzy and her friend are missing the best movie ever!

 

Rule: When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by or, use a singular verb.

Example: The pen or the pencil is in the drawer, my purse, my book bag, or perhaps, my pencil pouch.

 

Rule: Do not be confused by a phrase that comes between your subject and your verb.

Example: Russell Wilson, as well as the rest of the Seattle Seahawks, is ready for the game against the Green Bay Packers.

 

Rule: Fractions should be treated as singular or plural, depending upon the noun they are referring to.

Examples: Two-thirds of the zombies in “The Walking Dead” move slowly. The rest can apparently sprint.

Two-thirds of your cake was eaten before you got home.

Active Versus Passive Verbs

In her book Rhetorical Grammar, grammarian Martha Kolln mentions agency as one of the most important aspects of verbs you should know about. Agency involves understanding the relationship between the subject and the verb in a sentence and whether or not the subject is the agent in the sentence.

Take a moment to read the following two sentences.

Amy grabbed the zombie survival guide.

The zombie survival guide was grabbed by Amy.

Can you see how these sentences are different? In the first sentence, the verb grabbed is active because its subject, Amy is the doer or agent. Amy did the grabbing. In the second sentence, was grabbed is passive because it describes an action done to its subject, guide. The doer of the action, Amy, is now the object of the preposition by.

Use active verbs whenever possible as they allow you to express yourself clearly, succinctly, and strongly. Active verbs imply that you're confident with what you are saying; you believe in your words. Looking back at the two sentences, you can see that the first one uses fewer words and makes no mistake as to who did the action. The latter sentence is wordy and does not directly address Amy.

Tip!

You can use a little strategy to see if you’re using passive voice by checking to see if you can add by zombies after the verb. If you can, then you likely have passive voice and should restructure your sentence. In the example above, you can write, was grabbed by zombies, so you know this is passive voice. Since business writing and APA Style require that you use active voice whenever possible, you should restructure your sentences so they use active voice.

Purposeful Passive Voice

There are occasions when you might want to use passive verbs, such as when you don’t want to mention the doer, the result of the action is more important than the doer, or the doer is unknown. Let’s take the following scenario and apply it to all three reasons for using a passive verb:

Tom and Mark, two brothers, are preparing their home for the zombie apocalypse. Tom is throwing canned goods across the room to Mark, who is stacking them on a shelf. Tom throws a can of creamed corn to Mark and accidentally hits a vase. The vase breaks into pieces. Their mother asks what happened.

The responses could go as follows:

Tom threw the creamed corn and broke the vase.

OR

The vase was broken when the creamed corn was thrown at it.

The first sentence uses the active verbs threw and broke. It simply tells what happened and squarely blames Tom.

The second sentence uses the passive verbs was broken and was thrown. It doesn’t mention who threw the can of corn, keeping the doer unknown. Also, it might be reasonable to believe that Tom thinks letting his mother know that the vase is broken is more important than identifying who broke the vase.

Tip!

There are some situations when passive voice can be useful, so it’s not the case that passive voice is “wrong.” It’s just that, in business writing, you should use active voice because it makes for lively, more engaging writing. A good way to spot passive voice is to look for to be verbs. You should limit those as well.

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Adjectives

An adjective modifies (describes or distinguishes) nouns and pronouns. In other words, adjectives change nouns or pronouns in some way. So movie is a noun, and a scary movie has been changed by the adjective scary.

It’s important to remember, too, adjectives, as in the case of a scary movie, give you a way to inject your point of view into your writing. You might also describe a lovable book, a beautiful dress, or an ominous sky. There’s a certain amount of subjectivity, of course, in all of these words, so you’ll want to work to keep your audience in mind when choosing your adjectives and do your best to make sure your adjectives (or descriptors) are specific, concrete, and will make sense to both you and your audience.

Tip!

Avoid imprecise adjectives in business writing. Business writing requires precision. For example, you should use a precise number when available as opposed to a word like many, and avoid generalized descriptors such as a lot, great, some, and any other words that are open to interpretation.

Order of Adjectives

Adjectives need to be placed in a particular order. If you’re a native English speaker, you can probably figure out the order without any thought. That’s because you understand English grammar—even if it’s only because you know what “sounds” right. If you’re a non-native English speaker, you’ve probably been schooled in the order.

Those fluent in English would likely write four gorgeous, long-stemmed, red, silk roses rather than four silk, long-stemmed, gorgeous, red roses, but why? What drives the order in our description? The first example leads us down a logical path; the second example doesn't let us know which details are most important. This can be explained by referring to the royal order of adjectives, illustrated in the table below:

     Retrieved from: https://open.maricopa.edu/eng102forh...er/adjectives/

 

Comparatives and superlatives are two related categories of adjectives. Comparative adjectives (which often en in -er) provide a relative distinction while superlative adjectives (which often end in -est) signify the most extreme of a descriptor.

Using comparative and superlative adjectives 

Comparative: My World of Warcraft mage is tougher than your character.

Superlative: My World of Warcraft mage is the toughest character ever.

There are also some adjectives that are irregular when you make them comparative and superlative, and some, usually adjectives with two syllables, require that you simply add more or most in front of them. The following examples are of some regular and some irregular adjectives:

 

Irregular comparative and superlative adjective examples

Adjective	Comparative	Superlative
kind strong good bad careful awesome	kinder stronger better worse more careful more awesome	kindest strongest best worst most careful most awesome

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Adverbs

Adverbs are words that modify or describe a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Just as an adjective changes a noun, an adverb changes a verb, adjective, or adverb. Adverbs are easily identified because they often end in -ly, though this is not always the case.

Though adverbs can make our writing more detailed, the need for concision in professional writing means that they get used sparingly, so employ them only when absolutely necessary.

Types of Adverbs

Adverbs most commonly describe how an action is done, but below is a more comprehensive list of some common types of adverbs.

Type of Adverb	Example
Adverbs of manner (or how)	Christine sang the song atrociously. No more karaoke for her!
Adverbs of time	Michelle did her homework yesterday, but she did the wrong assignment.
Adverbs of place	I met my friend at the coffee shop, and that’s where we saw the first signs of the outbreak.
Adverbs of degree	It’s too quiet in here.
Adverbs of frequency	Michael Jordan rarely misses a free throw, but Shaq frequently does.
Adverbs of purpose	I clean the litter box every day to keep the house from smelling.

Like adjectives, adverbs have a “royal order.” While you may already have an innate sense of this order, it can be helpful to review the rules.

Retrieved from: https://open.maricopa.edu/eng102forh...apter/adverbs/

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Prepositions

Prepositions are little words with a big purpose: they show relationships of time, place, and space. We might call them “glue” words because they bring other words together in ways that create meaning. They may generally be small in letters, but prepositions are important words that give meaning for time and place relationships among actions, objects, and ideas. It’s important to distinguish if you are throwing a ball to someone or at someone. Did you want your sandwich with or without onions? Do you need that zombie fort built at the end of summer or before the end of summer?

Even though they are small words, prepositions can be difficult because their use isn’t always logical. For example, most mid-Westerners speak of standing in line, but many on the East coast speak of standing on line.

Common Prepositions

aboard about above across after against along amid among around as

at before behind below beneath beside between beyond but by considering

despite down during except excluding following for from in inside into

like near of off on onto outside over past regarding since

than though to toward under underneath until up upon verses with

Tip!

As you make decisions about your preposition choices, consider the following preposition tips:

1. Despite what you may have heard, contemporary scholars and writing style guides acknowledge the acceptability of ending a sentence with a preposition (Casagrande, 2006). It’s natural and conversational to write short sentences that end with prepositions.
   • Did you find what you were looking for?
2. You should avoid unnecessary prepositions because using prepositions unnecessarily can make your writing wordy and even confusing.
   • Frank fell off [of] his horse while doing a stunt for a YouTube video.
3. The difference between beside and besides can be confusing. Beside means next to. Besides means in addition to.
4. The difference between between and among can also be confusing. You should use between when referring to two people or things, and you should use among when referring to more than two people or things.

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Articles

Articles are similar to adjectives in that they modify nouns, but unlike adjectives, they don’t describe a noun; they identify it. We have three articles in the English language: a, an, and the.

1. The is the definite article, which means it refers to a specific noun in a group.

2. A and an are indefinite articles, which means they refer to any member of a group. You would use an indefinite article when you aren’t trying to distinguish a particular noun. 

When to use "a" or "an"

General rules:

Use the article a when the noun begins with a consonant: a game, a book

Use the article an when the noun begins with a vowel: an opportunity, an appointment

 

Exceptions:

If a noun begins with h, think about the sound it makes.

If the h is silent, use the article an: an hour, an honorary degree

If the h is voiced, use the article a: a horse, a home

 

If a noun starts with a vowel, but it makes a y sound, use a instead of an: a university, a user

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Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word or phrase used to show the connection between ideas. You may have seen this classic video which provides an animated overview before you learn more about the different types of conjunctions below.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions coordinate or join two equal parts. They are particularly important because, when used with a comma, they can connect complete sentences. They don’t always have to connect complete sentences, though; they can also connect smaller, equal parts of a sentence.The key to using coordinating conjunctions is to think about what they are coordinating. This will help you make decisions about which one to use and how to punctuate around them. There are only seven coordinating conjunctions, and they are sometimes referred to as the FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.

Using coordinating conjunctions

If you are using a coordinating conjunction to connect two complete sentences, you must also use a comma.

• I knew that phrase from the debate would be a meme, but I am surprised at how quickly it happened.

If you aren’t connecting two complete sentences and are just connecting smaller, equal parts of a sentence, you should not use a comma.

• I knew that phrase from the debate would be a meme but am surprised at how quickly it happened.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions connect parts that aren’t equal. You can tell by their name that they make a phrase subordinate to the main phrase or clause. Common subordinating conjunctions include: after, although, because, before, even, though, since, though, and when.

Using subordinating conjunctions

When a subordinating conjunction appears at the beginning of a sentence, the subordinating phrase is always set off with a comma. When a subordinating conjunction appears at the end of a sentence, the subordinating phrase is not usually set off with commas.

• Because my alarm clock did not go off, I missed the full moon and will now have to wait until next month to go out and play.
• I missed the full moon and will now have to wait until next month to go out and play because my alarm clock did not go off.

Exceptions: When using words like although or even though at the end of a sentence, since these phrases show contrast, they still get a comma.

• Although I tried, I could not outrun the werewolf.
• I could not outrun the werewolf, although I tried.

It’s also important to note that although cannot stand alone like a conjunctive adverb:

Incorrect: Although, I tried to outrun the werewolf.

The above example is a common, incorrect usage of although and actually makes a sentence fragment, which is a significant grammatical error.

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Conjunctive Adverbs

Words that seem like conjunctions but are not exactly conjunctions are conjunctive adverbs. They are more commonly called transitional words or phrases because they link other ideas.

Common conjunctive adverbs include words like however, moreover, therefore, and furthermore. They provide important transitions between ideas and are used to create a nice, flowing work.

Using conjunctive adverbs

Often, you’ll see a conjunctive adverb used after a semicolon to start a new independent clause, as in this example:

• I have several back-up zombie plans in place; however, I am sure my first plan is the best plan.

It’s important to note that you don’t have to use a conjunctive adverb every time you use a semicolon and you don’t have to use a semicolon to use a conjunctive adverb. Conjunctive adverbs work well after periods, too.

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Punctuation

Using punctuation properly will help keep your writing clean and clear and will build your credibility as a writer. The following pages will provide you with an overview of the basic rules regarding punctuation along with examples to illustrate those rules.

Apostrophes

It makes sense that we might not worry about properly placing apostrophes in a text message, but it’s important to remember that we do need to use apostrophes correctly in professional writing situations. Beginning writers sometimes mistakenly add apostrophes to make words plural, but this is not how the apostrophe is used. Though often misused and misunderstood, the two primary functions of apostrophes are to express either possession or contraction.

Using Apostrophes to Make Words Possessive

The apostrophe is used to show possession or ownership by adding 's at the end of the noun with possession. For example, if Sam owns a dog, it is Sam's dog. 

For those times when you are determining whether a possessive apostrophe is needed, use the “of” test. If you can reword the sentence and substitute the apostrophe with of, then the apostrophe probably belongs there.

The "of" test

Using an apostrophe	Rewritten with "of"
my friend’s DVD	the DVD of my friend
Beth’s zombie plan	the zombie plan of Beth
James’s canned goods	the canned goods of James

Plural Possessives

Making plural words possessive can be confusing at times because we so often add an s to a noun to make it plural. All of those s’s can be a little overwhelming but the rules are pretty clear on this issue:

To make plural nouns that do not end in s possessive, add ’s. To make plural nouns that end in s possessive, just add the ’.

Possessive plural examples

my cats’ treasures
our zombie fortresses’ weaknesses

Using Apostrophes to Create Contractions

Apostrophes are also used in contractions where the apostrophe takes the place of letters that are omitted when you join two words. Here are some examples:

Contraction examples 

I am = I'm	it is = it's
you are = you're	did not = didn't

Note: Although there are plenty of writing situations where contractions are appropriate, contractions are too informal for most of the formal papers you write for college and should be avoided in those situations.

Tips!

While most of the rules regarding apostrophes are fairly straightforward, the following situations related to apostrophes seem to give people trouble:

1. It's is a contraction for it is. If you need to make it possessive, as in its creepy eyes, you wouldn't use an apostrophe. because of the contraction for it is, the possessive its goes again the normal rules.
2. Sometimes, you’ll see writers use an apostrophe when referring to decades like the 1980’s. However, it’s standard to write the 1980s without the apostrophe.
3. To make a compound word such as mother-in-law possessive, just add an ’s to the last word. For example: My mother-in-law’s weekly phone calls make me really nervous. 
4. If you need to show joint possession, only the last word should be made possessive, as illustrated in this example: Alex and Megan’s zombie-proof fence is an admirable example of joint possession.

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Brackets

Brackets are used when you have to alter text within a quote to make something clear for your readers. The material inside the brackets is your addition. Be careful though! You may not change the meaning of the quote.You may not use brackets often, but they can become helpful punctuation as you integrate quotes into your writing. Brackets let your readers know you have made changes to a quote in some way.

To demonstrate how to use brackets, let's start with an original quote:

Original Quotation: “More than a decad ago, losses were already mounting to five billion dollars annually.”

The examples below demonstrate the three ways to use brackets in a quotation:

Three ways to use brackets

Clarify the meaning

Legal scholar Jay Kesan notes that “a decade ago, losses [from employees’ computer crimes] were already mounting to five billion dollars annually” (2010).

Since your audience did not read the article, they won't understand which losses Jay Kesan is referring to in this quote. Therefore, you should use brackets to help your audience understand the context of the quotation.

Signal misspelling within the quote

Legal scholar Jay Kesan notes that “a decad [sic] ago, losses were already mounting to five billion dollars annually” (2010).

As tempting as it may be, you may not change anything within a quotation. Because you do not want your audience to think you made a mistake in spelling, you should use the term [sic] after a misspelled word within a quotation.

Emphasize a point that was not emphasized in the original quotation

Legal scholar Jay Kesan notes that “a decade ago, losses were already mounting to five billion dollars annually” [emphasis mine] (2010).

Using phrases like [emphasis mine] or [emphasis in the original] allows your reader to understand whether the point is being emphasized by you or the original author.

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Colons

In most cases, a colon signals “anticipation”—the reader knows that what follows the colon will define, illustrate, or explain what preceded it. This is certainly the case in the colon’s first three uses, as described below:

Five ways to use a colon

Separating two independent clauses to emphasize the second independent clause

Road construction in the city might pose a problem if there is a zombie attack: It is best to know which streets are closed, as you do not want to end up lost during a dire situation

Separating an independent clause from a list that follows the independent clause

I have collected a variety of important items in case there is a zombie attack: canned food, bottled water, and wood for boarding my windows.

BUT! You shouldn’t use a colon when the introductory portion of the sentence is a dependent clause. The first part of the sentence must be an independent clause or a complete sentence. So the following would NOT work:

Incorrect I have collected: canned food, bottled water, and wood for boarding my windows

Separating an independent clause from an appositive following the independent clause

I have the perfect solution to your problems with bullies at work: Chuck Norris

At the end of a formal, business letter greeting

Dear Ms. Smith:

Separating the hour from the minutes when writing numerical time

3:00 a.m.

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Commas

People often struggle with comma placement, and while they may be tricky if you aren’t familiar with the rules, they are not subjective, and no matter what your third-grade teacher told you, it’s probably not a good idea to place a comma wherever you feel the need to take a breath. 

There are actually some pretty clear-cut rules regarding commas, and while some rules seem to be clearer than others, at least in terms of how much most people understand, there are some basic comma rules that can help you know when and when not to use a comma.

With Coordinating Conjunctions

Use a comma with a coordinating conjunction when combining two independent clauses. An independent clause is a term for a complete thought or sentence with both a subject and a verb. A coordinating conjunction is a conjunction that combines two equal elements and can combine two complete sentences.

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, there are seven coordinating conjunctions in American English: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Coordinating conjunctions can connect all kinds of words and phrases, but when they are used to connect independent clauses, we must place a comma before the coordinating conjunction. If the coordinating conjunction does not connect two independent clauses, do not place a comma before the coordinating conjunction.

Coordinating conjunctions with and without commas

I am preparing for a zombie invasion, and I am building a strong zombie fort around my home.

BUT

I am preparing for a zombie invasion and am building a strong zombie fort around my home.

Items in a Series

Use a comma to separate items in a series (three or more things). You should even place a comma between the last two, although some writing style guidelines now omit this comma. In academic culture, we still use the serial or “Oxford” comma.

Serial comma examples

She stayed up all night watching scary movies and ate popcorn, peanuts, and chocolate.

She ran into the house, shut the door, and locked all of the locks because she thought a werewolf was behind her.

After Introductory Phrases

Use commas after introductory words or phrases. These are sometimes single words, but they can also be subordinating conjunctions, which are words that connect, but unlike coordinating conjunctions, which connect equal parts, subordinating conjunctions connect dependent clauses (incomplete thoughts) to independent clauses. Some of the most common subordinating conjunctions include the following: because, although, after, while, and since.

Commas with introductory words and phrases

However, video games make great presents for a teenager.

Because his favorite team lost the Super Bowl, he would not speak to anyone about the game for two years.

Although they have stored a lot of food in their basement, I am not sure if they have enough for a zombie apocalypse.

When these same phrases appear at the end of a sentence, they are not set off by commas, except in cases of strong contrast—for instance, in the case of the word although.

Subordinating conjunctions at the end of a sentence

He would not speak to anyone about the game for two years because his favorite team lost the Super Bowl.

BUT

I am not sure if they have enough for a zombie apocalypse, although they have stored a lot of food in their basement.

With Essential & Nonessential Information

Use commas in the middle of a sentence to set off words or phrases that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Conversely, it’s important to remember that are essential words or phrases should not be set off with commas. The best tip is to think about how meaning would be affected if you pulled out the word or phrase. If the meaning is not really affected, the word or phrase is not essential and should be placed inside a set of commas.

Commas around non-essential information

The New York Yankees, who happen to be my favorite team, have won more World Series than any other team in baseball.

The Boston Red Sox, however, have won the World Series only nine times.

BUT

Her copy of Skyrim that I borrowed last week was the best video game I have ever played.

With Adjectives

Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives describing the same noun. When we have two coordinate or “equal” adjectives describing the same noun, we need to place a comma between those adjectives. If the adjectives aren’t coordinate, or “equal,” you should not separate them with a comma. 

Commas between coordinate adjectives

It was a stressful, sleepless night because I stayed up too late playing video games.

BUT

Everyone knows the white frame house on Third Street is haunted.

A good trick to help you determine whether or not adjectives are coordinate is to try reading the sentence with the adjectives in reverse order or to add the word and between them. If the sentence would still make sense to you, the adjectives are coordinate, and you would need to separate them with a comma if they are describing a single noun.

With Shifts at the End

Use a comma to separate coordinate elements at the end of a sentence or to indicate a distinct shift at the end of a sentence.

Commas to indicate a shift at the end of a sentence

You want me to fight Chuck Norris for you? I am brave, not crazy.

You are going to stand in line for the new Halo 4, aren’t you?

With Quotes

Use a comma between the main discourse and a quote. Whether you are writing dialog or setting up a quote from a source in your research, you should use a comma to separate the main discourse from your quote.

Comma before a quote

As Bilbo Baggins said, “I like half of you half as well as I should like, and like less than half of you half as well as you deserve!”

My favorite line in Shakespeare’s Macbeth is when the witches say, “Double, double, toil and trouble; fire, burn; and cauldron, bubble.”

With Places & Dates

Use commas to set apart geographical names and to separate items in dates, except for between the month and the day.

Comma between geographical names and items in dates

When I heard zombies had been located in New York, New York, I knew it was time to move to Los Angeles, California.

It is a good thing that letter made it to 4 Privet Drive, Little Whinging, Surrey, England.

I know the Mayan calendar indicates the end of the world on December 21, 2012, but I am going to stick with Nostradamus because he gave us until 3797.

Common Comma Mistakes

There are many ways that writers misuse commas. Below, you will find four of the most common places that people tend to place commas where they don't belong.

Don't use a comma...

1. To separate a subject from a verb.

Incorrect: My zombie plan, involves the complete and utter failure of your zombie plan.

2. Between two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.

Incorrect: Do those vampires really sparkle in the sunlight, and drink only animal blood?

3. Between two nouns or noun phrases in a compound subject.

Incorrect: Aggressive newbies, and campers are ruining the gaming experiences for me.

4. To set off a dependent clause at the end of a sentence, except in cases of strong contrast.

Incorrect: My gaming confidence is at an all-time low, because I got pawned ten times by a second-grader.

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Dashes

The dash is kind of like the superhero of punctuation. However, you don’t want to overuse this type of punctuation. You use dashes to set apart or emphasize the content that is within the dashes or after a dash. The content within the dashes or after the dash gets more emphasis than it would if you just used commas or parentheses.

Using a dash for emphasis

His ideas regarding an evacuation in case of a zombie attack are certainly controversial — even radical.

I think the reason those books became so popular — so much so that they became a cultural phenomenon—is that the world was ready for a little bit of magic.

You can also use dashes to set apart an appositive phrase or extra information that contains commas.

Using a dash with an appositive

The changes that came with the arrival of the eleventh doctor — the screwdriver, the TARDIS, and all of the side characters — certainly surprised many fans.

Of course, while the rules related to using dashes are relatively simple, there seems to be great confusion over how the dash is actually created in word processing programs, and it often gets confused with the hyphen. The hyphen is smaller and comes between words like mother-in-law. The dash is longer and is created by placing two hyphens in a row. When you space after the word after the dash, most word processing programs will turn those two little hyphens — into a dash — like so.

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Ellipses

Many people use an ellipsis to show a pause or hint at the future in informal writing, often seen in things like Facebook messages and personal emails. Although this use of an ellipsis was technically incorrect at one time, it’s becoming “more” correct over time with some style manuals suggesting you can use an ellipsis in this manner if you use it sparingly.

In formal writing, it’s not a good idea to use an ellipsis to show a pause or to create anticipation. Academic style guides recommend using an ellipsis only to show that you have omitted words in quotes. The key is that you shouldn’t change the meaning of the quote. When you have long quotes and you need to eliminate some unnecessary information from those quotes, an ellipsis can be very helpful.

Using ellipses

Original quote: “Often, a school is your best bet—perhaps not for education but certainly for protection from an undead attack.”
— Max Brooks, The Zombie Survival Guide

Shortened quote: “Often, a school is your best bet . . . for protection from an undead attack.”

Create an ellipsis is three periods or dots, and most style guides call for a space between each dot. So, you would type period, space, period, space, and period. You also need a space before and after the ellipsis. One tip is to make sure your ellipsis does not stretch to the next line. It must be all on one line. If you are ending a sentence with an ellipsis, it may look like you have a four-dot ellipsis, but there is really no such thing. The first dot is your period. Then, you have your ellipsis. In this situation, you will also put a space between each period.

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Exclamation Marks

You won’t use many exclamation marks in professional writing. The exclamation mark is the equivalent of yelling, and very few professional writing situations call for yelling.

However, exclamation marks do serve an important function by adding emphasis to commands or other phrases, and you may find yourself needing the exclamation mark when reporting someone else's words. In most cases, you should be careful with exclamation marks and make sure the situation calls for them.

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Hyphens

When you have two or more words that modify or describe a noun that follows, you should hyphenate those words. But a word of caution: you shouldn’t hyphenate those same words if they come after the noun. Hyphens have other uses including acting with prefixes, suffixes, nouns, letters, and numbers and clarifying the meaning of words.

Using hyphenated words to modify a noun

I thought we were in a long-term relationship.

BUT

Everyone knew that relationship was not long term.

 

I have a three-year-old son who mimics every word you say.

BUT

I have a son who mimics every word you say; he is three years old.

Compound numbers get hyphenated: twenty-five, thirty-seven. You should also hyphenate words that begin with self, all, ex, and words that begin with a capital letter or number: ex-husband, all-inclusive, self-help, the A-team.

Finally, it’s important to note that hyphen “rules” are more like guidelines. Even experts disagree about whether or not some words or groups of words should be hyphenated. It’s definitely a good idea to double-check with the style manual you are using, and for tricky words, you can consult a good dictionary.

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Parentheses

Parentheses are used to set off information in a sentence that is important but not really a part of the main message. It’s important to remember that your sentence should make sense if you eliminate the parentheses and all that is contained between them.

Using parentheses to add information

The Headless Horseman (as the old legend goes) eliminated the disruption Ichabod Crane brought to Sleepy Hollow.

You’ll probably use parentheses most often in your research papers because both APA and MLA formatting require in-text citations using parentheses. So right after a quote or any other borrowed information, you should include an in-text citation in parentheses.

Using parentheses for in-text citations

APA (Jones, 2011, p.131).
MLA (Jones 131).

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Periods

The period seems pretty straightforward. After all, for most of us, this was the first punctuation we learned when we were learning to read. Periods are certainly important punctuation because they are what we most often use to separate complete thoughts or independent clauses. Periods are how we end our sentences most of the time, especially in professional writing.

However, periods do serve another important function in the world of punctuation: abbreviations.

Common abbreviations using periods

Titles: Dr., Mr., Mrs., Ms.

Time: a.m., p.m.

Latin terms: et al., ibid., i.e., e.g., etc.

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Question Marks

Obviously, you should use a question mark at the end of a question, as in "When did our professor say that project was due?"

However, there are situations involving question marks that seems to give people a lot of trouble. What about when you have a sentence that is part statement and part question? What do you do then? You have a couple of options, depending upon the situation. 

Using a Question Mark

If the statement before the question isn’t complete, you can simply use a comma to separate the statement from the question.

Example: The question I have is, how are we going to get out of here?

If the sentence is awkward, change it so the first part, the statement part, is a complete sentence. In this situation, you might have a sentence like the following:

Example: One question remains: How are we going to get out of here?

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Quotation Marks

Quotation marks are how we tell our readers we are including words that aren't our own. Whether we're using dialog or quoting material from our research, quotation marks are important punctuation. Punctuation marks can also make a difference in whether or not you are breaking the law. After all, if you use someone else’s words and don't let your readers know it, that constitutes plagiarism, which is most certainly illegal.

Quotation Marks with Dialog

You may not find yourself needing to use dialog very often in professional writing, but you may need to report what other people have said, so knowing how to accurately reflect those words in writing in still a useful skill.

When you use dialog, it’s important to use quotation marks to set apart the speech from the rest of your text. Otherwise, separating the dialog from the rest of the writing can be very confusing for readers.

Using quotation marks with dialog

  "This time," my basketball coach said, "I know you can do it." It turned out he did not really know what he was talking about.

Quotation Marks with Quoted Material

You should also use quotation marks any time you use words directly from another source. Sometimes, students think putting a citation or reference at the end “covers it,” but you must use quotation marks to indicate borrowed words.

Using quotation marks to indicate quoted material

"Quotation marks serve primarily to tell the reader the exact words someone used” (Hope, 2010, p. 21).

If you paraphrase a source, this means you have put the information in your own words, and you don’t need to use quotation marks. You should still cite with an in-text citation, but you shouldn’t use quotation marks.

The key to borrowing information from sources is to remember that any words appearing inside quotation marks belong to someone else. Words that do not appear inside quotation marks are assumed to be yours.

Single Quotes

Now that you know what quotation marks are used for, you may wonder about the single quotation marks — the one that look like ‘this.’ These are used for quotes within quotes, as illustrated below.

You may encounter situations where you’ll close single quotation marks and double quotation marks at the same time, leaving you with “something like ‘this.’” Don’t worry if this happens. It is correct. It just means the quote within the quote ended at the same time the main quote ended.

Using single quotation marks

The article read, “When the quarterback for the Green Bay Packers was interviewed, he said he was ‘upset’ about the call that affected the game.”

Jane asked, "Did you know that Bob said 'I love you?'"

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Semicolons

One of the main uses of a semicolon is to separate two independent clauses. The semicolon isn’t like a comma; it’s really more like a period. Using a semicolon like a comma can definitely create some trouble.

Semicolons to Join Clauses

You should use a semicolon when you’re joining two independent clauses without a connecting word. The semicolon functions, structurally, just like a period. The difference is that the semicolon between the two independent clauses shows they are connected, as illustrated in the following examples:

Using semicolons

If you want me to vote for you, you are going to need to tell me what I want to hear; if you are lying, I guess I will worry about that later.

I am so tired of spending so much money on canned food for my zombie apocalypse hoard; I am pretty sure the grocery store clerks are laughing at me behind my back.

Using Semicolons in Lists

Even though we've just said that semicolons shouldn’t be used like commas, we should discuss one situation where the semicolon does function more like a comma. You should use semicolons when you are separating items in a list that contains commas.

Semicolons in lists

At the Comicon conference, I met Jeanne, from Dallas, Texas; James, from Bend, Oregon; and Stacey, from Bangor, Maine.

Because the items in the series contain commas themselves, it would be confusing to add more commas to the situation. In this particular instance, the semicolon separates the items in a series.

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Sentence Structure

The basic unit of written communication is the sentence. Just like there are parts of speech, there are parts of sentences. Once you understand those, you can create a wide range of sentence styles.

Basic Parts of the Sentence

Subject

The subject of a sentence is the noun, pronoun, or phrase or clause about which the sentence makes a statement. The subjects of each of the sentences below is in bold.

1. Einstein's general theory of relativity has been subjected to many tests of validity over the years.
2. Although a majority of caffeine drinkers think of it as a stimulant, heavy users of caffeine say the substance relaxes them.
3. In a secure landfill, the soil on top and the cover block storm water intrusion into the landfill. (compound subject)

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Verb phrase

The main verb, or verb phrase, of a sentence is a word or words that express an action, event, or a state of existence. It sets up a relationship between the subject and the rest of the sentence. The verb phrase of each of the sentences below is in bold.

1. The first high-level language to be widely accepted, FORTRAN, was implemented on an IBM 704 computer.
2. Instruction in the source program must be translated into machine language. (passive construction)
3. The operating system controls the translation of the source program and carries out supervisory functions. (compound verb)

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Predicate

The predicate is the rest of the sentence coming after the subject. It can include the main verb, subject complement, direct object, indirect object, and object complement. The predicate of each of the sentences below is in bold.

1. The pressure in a pressurized water reactor varies from system to system.
2. The pressure is maintained at about 2250 pounds per square inch to prevent steam from forming.
3. In contrast, a boiling water reactor operates at constant pressure.

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Subject complement

The subject complement is a noun, pronoun, adjective, phrase, or clause that comes after a linking verb. The subject complement of each of the sentences below is in bold.

1. The maximum allowable concentration is ten parts H₂S per million parts breathable air.
2. The deadening of the sense of smell caused by H₂S is the result of the effects of H₂S on the olfactory nerves of the brain.
3. Continuous exposure to toxic concentrations of H₂S can be fatal.

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Direct object

A direct object is a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause acting as a noun that takes the action of the main verb. A direct object can be identified by putting what?, which?, or whom? in its place. The direct object of each of the sentences below is in bold.

1. Lavoisier used curved glass discs fastened together at their rims to focus the sun's rays.
2. The dust and smoke lofted into the air by nuclear explosions might cool the earth's atmosphere some number of degrees.
3. A 20 percent fluctuation in average global temperature could reduce biological activity, shift weather patterns, and ruin agriculture.

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Indirect object

An indirect object—a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause acting as a noun—receives the action expressed in the sentence. It can be identified by inserting to or for. The indirect object of each of the sentences below is in bold.

1. In the application letter, tell [to] the potential employer that a resume accompanies the letter.
2. The company is designing [for] senior citizens a new walkway to the park area.
3. Do not send [to] the personnel office a resume unless someone there specifically requests it.

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Object complement

An object complement—a noun or adjective coming after a direct object—adds detail to the direct object. To identify object complements, insert [to be] between the direct object and object complement.

1. The supervisor found the program [to be] faulty.
2. The company considers the new computer [to be] a major breakthrough.
3. Most people think the space shuttle [to be] a major step in space exploration.

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Basic Sentence Patterns

Subject + verb

The simplest of sentence patterns is composed of a subject and verb. It uses an intransitive verb, that is, a verb requiring no direct object:

1. Control rods remain inside the fuel assembly of the reactor.
2. The development of wind power practically ceased until the early 1970s.
3. The cross-member exposed to abnormal stress eventually broke.

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Subject + linking verb + subject complement

Another simple pattern uses the linking verb, any form of theverb "to be" without an action verb:

1. The chain reaction is the basis of nuclear power.
2. Folding and faulting of the earth's surface are important geologic processes.
3. The silicon solar cell can be difficult and expensive to manufacture.

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Subject + verb + direct object

Another common sentence pattern uses the direct object:

1. Silicon conducts electricity in an unusual way.
2. The anti-reflective coating on the the silicon cell reduces reflection from 32 to 22 percent.
3. Pre-stressing of the concrete increases the load-carrying capacity of the members.

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Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object

The sentence pattern with the indirect object and direct object is similar to the preceding pattern:

1. We are sending you the balance of the payment in this letter.
2. The supervisor mailed the applicant a description of the job.
3. Austin, Texas, has recently built its citizens a system of bike lanes.

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Subject + verb + direct object + object complement

The sentence pattern using the [direct object] and object complement is not common but worth knowing:

1. The walls are usually painted black.
2. The plant shutdown left the entire area an economic disaster.
3. The committee declared the new design a breakthrough in energy efficiency.

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Compound sentences

A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, yet, for) and a comma, an adverbial conjunction and a semicolon, or a semicolon.

1. In sphygmomanometers, too narrow a cuff can result in erroneously high readings, and too wide a cuff can result in erroneously low readings.
2. Some cuffs hook together; others wrap or snap into place.

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Compound predicates

A predicate is everything in the verb part of the sentence after the subject (unless the sentence uses inverted word order). A compound predicate is two or more predicates joined by a coordinating conjunction. Traditionally, the conjunction in a sentence consisting of just two compound predicates is not punctuated.

Another library media specialist has been using Accelerated Reader for ten years and has seen great results.

This cell phone app lets users share pictures instantly with followers and categorize photos with hashtags.

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Problem Modifiers

A modifier is any element—a word, phrase, or clause—that adds information to a noun or pronoun in a sentence. Modifier problems occur when the word or phrase that a modifier is supposed to modify is unclear or absent, or when the modifier is located in the wrong place within the sentence. To correct misplaced modifier problems, you can usually relocate the misplaced modifier (the word or phrase). To correct dangling modifiers, you can rephrase the dangling modifier, or rephrase the rest of the sentence that it modifies. 

Correcting misplaced modifiers

Sentence	Problem	Corrective Revision
They found out that the walkways had collapsed on the late evening news.	Did the walkways collapse on the late evening news?	On the late evening news, we heard that the walkways had collapsed.
The committee nearly spent a hundred hours investigating the accident.	So how much time did the committee spend? A minute? An hour?	The committee spent nearly a hundred hours investigating the accident.
The supervisor said after the initial planning the in-depth study would begin.	Did the supervisor say it after the initial planning? And when will the study begin?	The supervisor said that the in-depth study would begin after the initial planning.

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Writing with Numbers vs. Words

When it comes to numbers, we often break the rules that are taught in composition courses and used in standard publishing and copyediting practice. That's because in business and scientific contexts, we are vitally interested in statistical data, and that data is often easier to process when presented in numeral form. In general, we use numerals in text if they represent critical values, an exact measurement, or both, even if those values are below 10. For example, in the sentence "Our computer backup system uses 4 mm tape," the numeral is a key element, just as it is in cooking: "This recipe calls for 4 cups of unbleached flour." But consider this one: "There are four key elements that define a desktop publishing system." A word, not a numeral, is preferable here because the four isn't a data point; it's just part of the idea in the sentence.

Specific Number Rules with Examples

• Don't start sentences with numeral; write the number out, or rephrase the sentence so that it doesn't begin the sentence.
  • Example: Fifty-three representatives of different software development companies showed up to the meeting.
• For decimal values less than 1, add a 0 before the decimal point: for example, .08 should be written as 0.08.
  • Example: Most grinds of coffee contain particles ranging in size from 0.023 to 0.055 inches in diameter.
• Make a firm decision on how to handle 0 and 1 when they refer to key, exact values, and stick with it.
  • Example: If you are using page-zero addressing, use a RAM for memory page zero.
• Use numerals for important, exact values, even when those values are below 10.
  • Example: There are 59 different species of the coffee shrub, but only 4 are of commercial importance.
• Use words for numerical values that are unimportant.
  • Example: There are six data types in the C programming language.
• In running text, always write out an estimated fraction.
  • Example: Japan has roughly one-third of the US production of dry batteries.
• When you must use exact fractions, avoid using symbols. Instead, construct the fraction with a slash, putting a hyphen between the whole number and the fraction.
  • Example: As a base from which to work, 2-1/2 to 3 gallons of water are needed for each sack of cement for complete hydration and maximum strength.
• Don't make numerical values look more exact than they are. For example, don't add ".00" to a dollar amount if the the amount is rounded or estimated.
  • Example: In 1978, the satellite carriers' revenues were about $88 million, and by 1986, they are expected to reach $800 million.
• For large amounts, you can write out million or billion, but not thousand.
  • Example: Some 19 million tons of sulphur dioxide are discharged from US sources alone each year, and another 14 million tons from Canada.
• When there are enumerated items or parts, business writing uses the number; no "#" or "No." is used.
  • Example: The problem is located in piston number 6.
• Spell out the word "percent," and avoid use of the percent symbol except in situations where using the symbol can save space, as in tables. Always use a numeral with percent, no matter how small the numeral.
  • Example: In 1971, 11 countries accounted for about 91 percent of world production of coal.
• Use "percentage" as a stand-alone noun.
  • Example: A large percentage of my income goes to pet food.

Symbols and Abbreviations

Symbols and abbreviations can be distracting to readers since they are different from the normal flow of words. However, there are many cases where the written-out version is more distracting than the symbol or abbreviation. Also, the context (specifically, technical or nontechnical) has a lot to do with which to use.

Imagine a document that has only one or two references to numerical measurements in inches. There is no reason to use symbols or abbreviations here—just write the word out. But imagine a document with numerous feet and inch references: using symbols or abbreviations in this case is better, making the document more readable and more efficient for both reader and writer.

But which? Imagine the amount of foot and inch references there would be in a carpentry project. In this case, the symbols, " and ' would be preferable. However, this would be an extreme case; otherwise, use the abbreviations.

When you use symbols, especially for feet, inches, and some math symbols, use a symbols-type font. Avoid the "smart" quotes for feet and inches. Use the multiplication symbol for measurement contexts.

Which are the standard symbols and abbreviations to use? Go with the standards in the field in which you are writing, or with those found in a standard reference book such as a dictionary. Don't make them up yourself!

What about plurals? Very few abbreviations take an s to indicate plural: for example 5 in. means 5 inches. For the few that you think might take the s, check a dictionary.

What about obscure abbreviations and symbols? If you are concerned that readers might not recognize the abbreviation or symbol, write its full name in regular text and then put the abbreviation and symbol in parentheses right after the first occurrence of that full name.

Abbreviations and symbols in text

High resolution displays use larger video bandwidths, up to 30 MHz or more.

Most touch-sensitive displays use a matrix of either LED/photodiodes or transparent capacitor arrays to detect a physical touch.

The part of the memory that is easily alterable by the operator consists of RAM chips.

A satellite in geostationary orbit looks at the earth with a cone angle of 17.3θ corresponding to an arc of 18,080 km along the equator.

Fairchild Industries, Inc., was an early participant in commercial satellites.

The voice was compressed from the usual 64-kb/s pulse code modulation (PCM) to 32 kb/s per channel by near-instantaneous companding (a modified PCM technique).

Terrestrial microwave radio communications require repeaters spaced every 20 to 40 mi from each other.

A velocity increment of approximately 155 ft/s per year is required to correct drift problems in satellites.

The ancient battery-like objects made by the Parthians in 250 BC were thin sheets of copper soldered into a cylinder 1.125 cm long and 2.6 cm in diameter.

The standard electrodes are the normal and the 0.1 normal (N) calomel electrodes in which the system is Hg|KCl solution saturated with HgCl.

Such batteries contain 4400 cc of water in which NaOH is dissolved.

Water pressure in the heat recovery loop can be as much as 25 psig.

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This work "Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics" is a derivative of "Grammar Essentials" by Excelsior College Online Writing Lab  and "Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics"  by Mary P. Richards, and is used under a CC BY 4.0 license. "Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics" is licensed under CC BY 4.0 by Heather Katzoff.