4.2: Middle, New, and Late Kingdom Egyptian Dynasties (1366 BCE – 332 BCE)
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Middle Kingdom – The period of Egyptian history from about 2050–1710 BCE known for political stability, expanded trade, and important developments in literature, architecture, and tomb construction.
New Kingdom – The era from about 1550–1070 BCE considered the height of Egyptian power, when pharaohs expanded Egypt’s territory and built monumental temples and tombs.
Karnak – A vast temple complex in Thebes dedicated primarily to the god Amun; the name means “the most select of places.”
Great Hypostyle Hall – A massive hall within the Karnak Temple complex filled with rows of giant stone columns supporting the roof, designed to create an impressive sacred space.
Valley of the Kings – A burial site in Egypt where many pharaohs of the New Kingdom were entombed in elaborate rock-cut tombs hidden in the desert cliffs.
King Tutankhamun – A young pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty who ruled during the New Kingdom and became famous after his nearly intact tomb was discovered in 1922.
Aten – The sun disk worshipped as a god during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten, who attempted to establish a form of monotheistic worship centered on Aten.
Mummification – The Egyptian process of preserving the dead through embalming and wrapping the body to prepare it for the afterlife.
Canopic jar – A container used during mummification to store and protect internal organs removed from the body before burial.
The Egyptians remained the dominant power along the Nile River and continued their long tradition of building monumental tombs for their kings. Their standardized written language was used for administrative and literary texts, and many technological innovations emerged in Egypt. The introduction of the horse and chariot, advancements in musical instruments, bronze working, pottery production, and textile looms laid foundations for later mechanical developments. This era marked the height of the Egyptian Empire under powerful pharaohs such as Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten (4.2.1) (r. c. 1353–1336 BCE), and Tutankhamun.
The Middle Kingdom is characterized as a period of artistic flourishing, large-scale construction projects, and strong economic growth. By the beginning of the New Kingdom, however, crop failures, political struggles, and foreign invasions weakened this prosperity. Although artistic production experienced moments of renewal, it increasingly suffered under government corruption and instability. Ramses II was the most prominent ruler of the New Kingdom and reigned for approximately 67 years. After his era, Egypt gradually declined. By around 600 BCE, the Persians controlled Egypt, and the once-great Egyptian Empire slowly eroded.
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Karnak
The Temple of Karnak (4.2.2) is located along the Nile River in Upper Egypt and served as the central religious complex dedicated primarily to the god Amun-Re. One of the most important spiritual centers ever constructed, Karnak eventually covered more than 200 acres and remained in continuous use for over 2,000 years. The scale of the complex is extraordinary—entire cathedrals such as Notre-Dame Cathedral, St. Peter’s Basilica, and St. Mark’s Basilica could fit within its walls. Additional structures were constantly added by successive rulers, including pylons, courtyards, shrines, and a large sacred lake, reflecting the wealth and political power of ancient Egypt.
The grandest space at Karnak is the Great Hypostyle Hall, (4.2.3), containing 134 massive sandstone columns, many rising about 24 meters (80 feet) high. The stone blocks were quarried at Gebel Silsila, more than 100 miles away, and likely transported by boat along the Nile. The hall’s walls, columns, and roof are richly covered with carved reliefs and hieroglyphic inscriptions. Today, the Hypostyle Hall remains one of the largest religious spaces ever built and stands as a testament to the richness and power of the ancient Egyptian kingdoms.
A reconstruction of the Ancient Egyptian temple, Luxor.
The Temple of Karnak was an enormous open-air religious complex constructed over more than 1,500 years by successive pharaohs and dedicated primarily to the supreme deity Amun-Re. Rather than being built all at once, Karnak grew gradually as each ruler added new temples, pylons, courtyards, and monumental halls to demonstrate devotion to the gods and to proclaim political power. The entire complex was once vividly painted with scenes of lotus and papyrus plants, palm trees, birds, stars, and religious rituals in brilliant blues, reds, yellows, and greens. Against the pale tones of the surrounding desert, this explosion of color would have created a striking and awe-inspiring visual experience for ancient visitors.
Many theories surround how Karnak was constructed, particularly regarding the movement and lifting of enormous stone blocks. Scholars generally propose the use of large earthen ramps, sledges, and pulley-like systems, along with thousands of skilled laborers and craftsmen. Because no written construction manuals survive, these ideas remain speculative, highlighting both the ingenuity of ancient Egyptian engineers and the enduring mystery of their building methods.
What did the enormous Temple of Karnak look like 3000 years ago? In this video we take a tour of the Temple of Amun-Ra in Karnak, the biggest Egyptian Temple that was ever constructed in Ancient Egypt.
The giant obelisk of Hatshepsut (4.2.4) still stands at the Temple of Karnak today, weighing approximately 325 metric tons and rising over 29 meters (95 feet) tall. Carved from a single block of pink granite, the obelisk was quarried, transported for many miles, and erected as a monumental symbol of royal authority, divine favor, and architectural ambition. Obelisks in ancient Egypt were closely associated with the sun and were believed to represent a petrified ray of sunlight, linking the pharaoh directly to the gods. Once positioned at Karnak, Hatshepsut’s obelisk was carved on all four sides with hieroglyphic inscriptions that recount her achievements as pharaoh. The reliefs show the queen kneeling before the god Amun-Re, presenting offerings and affirming her divine right to rule. Other inscriptions praise her lineage, celebrate the prosperity of her reign, and record the dedication of the monument.
In total, four obelisks commissioned by Hatshepsut were installed at Karnak using granite quarried and transported from distant sites. Scholars suggest that large teams of laborers, wooden sledges, water-lubricated tracks, and massive earthen ramps may have been used, yet no definitive construction records survive. The precise methods for raising and positioning these towering monoliths remain unknown, highlighting both the ingenuity of ancient Egyptian engineers and the enduring mystery surrounding their building techniques.
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Valley of the Kings
The Valley of the Kings (4.2.5) is situated along the Nile River in Upper Egypt and served as the primary burial ground for Egypt’s pharaohs and elite nobles during the New Kingdom. As the construction of pyramids gradually declined, rulers chose hidden rock-cut tombs instead, seeking greater security for their burials and treasures. These extraordinary tombs were carved directly into the sandstone cliffs and richly decorated with painted murals and reliefs. The imagery illustrates religious texts, funerary rituals, and scenes from the afterlife, all intended to guide and protect the pharaoh’s soul on its journey beyond death. Deep within each tomb lay the burial chamber, where the ruler was placed in an elaborately decorated sarcophagus surrounded by offerings for eternity. The Valley of the Kings stands today as one of the most important archaeological sites in the world and provides invaluable insight into ancient Egyptian beliefs about death, the afterlife, and divine kingship.
Come explore the Valley of the Kings in Egypt. We'll descend into King Tut's Tomb and explore the tombs of other pharaohs as well. Now, if you’re not quite sure what the Valley of the Kings is, this is where a man named Howard Carter, in 1922, discovered the tomb of Tutankhamen, better known as King Tut.
Queen Hatshepsut
One of the most famous royal burial monuments in ancient Egypt is associated with Hatshepsut (4.2.6) (r. c. 1508–1458 BCE). Hatshepsut was the fifth pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty and ruled for approximately 22 years. She is widely regarded as one of the greatest female leaders in world history, known for political stability, ambitious building programs, and extensive trade networks. Her mortuary temple, located at Deir el-Bahri near the Valley of the Kings, is considered one of the most beautiful and innovative architectural achievements in Egypt. The complex (4.2.7) originally featured gardens filled with frankincense trees and other rare plants brought back from foreign expeditions, emphasizing the wealth and reach of her reign. Completed within about 15 years, the temple is organized around a dramatic three-terraced design connected by ramps and framed by long colonnades, courtyards, and porticos. Carved reliefs on the walls recount Hatshepsut’s divine birth, her expedition to Punt, and her relationship with the god Amun, reinforcing her legitimacy as pharaoh.
Inside the tomb were elaborate low-relief carvings (4.2.8) painted with exquisite colors depicting the life of Hatshepsut. Figures are generally shown in profile view, especially the head. Even when the body is depicted from the front, the head is typically turned to the side. The carvings were carefully executed and then precisely painted. Although painted reliefs can deteriorate when exposed to the elements, these images were preserved because they were hidden deep underground. Artists created their pigments from locally available rocks and minerals, producing a rich palette of durable colors.
Mortuary Temple and Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut, c. 1479-58 B.C.E., New Kingdom, Egypt.
King Tutankhamun
King Tutankhamun was only nine years old when he was anointed as pharaoh and king in ancient Egypt, commonly known as King Tut. At the time, numerous wars were occurring, a problematic environment for a nine-year-old ruler. The king died when he was eighteen. Little was known about the king until the archaeologist Howard Carter discovered Tut's tomb in 1922. Most of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings were raided throughout time, and few important artifacts were found in earlier tomb excavations. When Carter discovered the tomb, all the objects buried with the king remained untouched. When Carter opened the final door to the tomb, he exclaimed, "As one's eyes became accustomed to the glimmer of light, the interior of the chamber gradually loomed before one, with its strange and wonderful medley of extraordinary and beautiful objects heaped upon one another."[1]
Carter discovered a highly decorated coffin inside a deeply buried room (4.2.9). When the coffin was opened, Carter found three more nested coffins, the last one made of gold. In the gold box was the sarcophagus holding the mummified body of the king. A study of King Tut's remains indicates he was only 1.67 meters tall. He "had a variety of medical conditions and illnesses, including malaria and Kohler disease, a rare bone disorder of the foot."[2] Several canes were found in the tomb, indicating the king's potential to have problems walking.
"The death mask (4.2.10 is considered one of the masterpieces of Egyptian art. It originally rested directly on the shoulders of the mummy inside the innermost gold coffin. It is constructed of two sheets of gold hammered together and weighs 22.5 pounds (10.23 kg). Tutankhamun is depicted wearing the striped nemes headdress (the striped head-cloth typically worn by pharaohs in ancient Egypt) with the goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet depicted again protecting his brow. He also wears a false beard that further connects him to the image of a god as with the inner coffin. He wears a broad collar, which ends in terminals shaped as falcon heads. The back of the mask is covered with Spell 151b from the Book of the Dead, which the Egyptians used as a road map for the afterlife. This particular spell protects the various limbs of Tutankhamun as he moves into the underworld."[3]
Sitting on the golden throne (4.2.11), Tutankhamun and Ankhsenamun are portrayed below in the rays of Aten, the sun god. Aten was part of a religious system and one of the primary deities. The sun and extending rays demonstrate Aten's influence to give life and light. The queen is anointing the king's shoulder with ointment as Aten's rays reflect on the pair. The ceremonial throne was located in the antechamber of the tomb. Embossed gold sheets about 3 mm thick covered the chair and then inlaid with semi-precious stones. When Howard Carter entered the tomb, he stated that the throne was "the most beautiful thing found to date in Egypt."[4]
After 3 years Howard Carter and his team finally get to excavate the lost tomb of King Tutankhamun. Using colorization technology, we are able to see this discovery as Carter and his team would have.
Mummification
The Egyptians believed in mummification, a process involving embalming and wrapping the body in preparation for burial in a sarcophagus. During the embalming process, the internal organs were removed from the body. The heart was considered the embodiment of the soul and was the only organ left inside the body for the journey to the afterlife. Each removed organ was placed in a canopic jar (4.2.12), often made from clay or alabaster, and buried with the body. The jars had different lids and were ornately decorated with animal or human faces (4.2.13), representing protective deities who watched over the organs.
The canopic jars (4.2.14) created for King Tutankhamun were made from alabaster with gold leaf decorating the base of the containers. When discovered in the tomb, the set was wrapped in a linen sheet. Each of the four jars contained one of the king’s organs: the lungs, stomach, intestines, and liver. These organs were removed during the interment process so they could accompany the king and be reunited with him in the afterlife.
[1] Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/54090-tu...-king-tut.html
[2] Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/54090-tu...-king-tut.html
[3] Retrieved from https://smarthistory.org/tutankhamun...nd-death-mask/
[4] Retrieved from https://egyptianmuseumcairo.eg/artef...f-tutankhamun/