6.3: Literatura prehispánica

(Translated from Spanish)

Introduction 

When Europeans arrived in the Americas, they found various ways of preserving knowledge among the continent's peoples. Knowledge and historical events were transmitted through oral tradition, symbolic drawings or hieroglyphs, and colored knots or quipus. These forms of knowledge transmission were displaced with the introduction of the Latin alphabet. In the following decades, religious figures and humanists began to instruct a select group of Native Americans in the Spanish language and culture. At the same time, the catechizing friars dedicated themselves to studying the various native languages and published the first dictionaries to facilitate the catechization and Hispanization of the American population. Written versions, using the Latin alphabet, of narratives and poems in Maya-Quiché, Nahuatl, and Quechua are products of these efforts. The influence of pre-Columbian literature on such distinguished writers as Octavio Paz, Pablo Neruda, Miguel Ángel Asturias, Carlos Fuentes, Ernesto Cardenal, Gustavo Sainz, Rosario Castellanos, José María Arguedas, and Augusto Roa Bastos, among others, indicates the profound impact that pre-Hispanic works have had on contemporary Latin American literature. Currently, thanks to the work of researchers of the pre-Columbian world (Ángel María Garibay and Miguel León Portilla in the Nahuatl region; Jesús Lara and Edmundo Bendezú in the Quechua region; and Adrián Recinos, Demetrio Sodi, and León Portilla in the Mayan region), it is possible not only to understand the ideological and cultural aspects of pre-Hispanic peoples but also to appreciate their rich literature, whose beauty and uniqueness have enriched contemporary Latin American literature. 

Nahuatl literature 

Although commonly classified under the genre of Aztec literature, Nahuatl literature encompasses not only the Aztecs who inhabited the city of Tenochtitlan, Mexico, but also the many peoples who comprised this empire and who maintained the Nahuatl language as a common denominator. The Nahuatl word means "clear" or "luminous." These qualities are especially evident in their poetry, considered the most sublime of their artistic expressions. Through poetry, the Nahua people sought to communicate with their deities; therefore, it was an activity performed with great solemnity by nobles and rulers. Nahuatl poetry was often accompanied by music, which explains why the Nahuatl equivalent of the word for poetry is "inxóchitl," meaning "flower and song." The experience of listening to poetic words—metaphorically described as “the flowers of the Giver of Life”—took place in special rooms of princes and kings or in royal gardens. The listeners were part of an icniuhyotl , a kind of brotherhood gathered around poetry. 

Because poetry was one of the most valued arts among the ancient Mexicans, there are multiple branches of this genre. Among the most prominent are: 

Yaocuícatl , war songs dedicated to extolling the warlike feats of a people. 

Teocuícatl , songs to the gods glorifying the importance of the various deities that made up the religion of the ancient Mexicans. They also narrate the origins of humanity. One of the most representative examples is the myth known as "The Five Suns," which recounts the five cosmic periods of the Earth. 

Xoxxixuícatl , songs that frequently allude to flowers. Flowers are a symbol of great importance to the literary expression of the Nahua peoples. The use of flowers in poetry serves as a metaphor for works of divine origin; sometimes flowers also appear as a metaphor for battles in war songs. 

Icnocuícatl , sad and philosophical songs that express the innermost aspects of the soul. The greatest representatives of this tradition are the ruler of the people of Texcoco, the poet-king Netzahualcóyotl (1402-1472), Moctezuma, the Aztec ruler at the time of the conquest, and Macuilxochitl, one of the few Nahua poets, born in 1435 and daughter of the famous warrior Tlacaélel. This poetic genre was also used in the songs that describe the tragic fall of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán. It is at this time (1521) that the painful subjugation of the indigenous people to Spanish culture begins. 

These four branches of Nahuatl poetry are not the only ones; new subdivisions have been discovered, such as cosmogonic songs, songs to animals, songs to spring, mischievous songs, etc. However, these four branches are the main and most representative. 

Calemac, del Códice Mendoza

Poetry was taught in the Calmecac , schools for the ruling class, and also in educational centers dedicated exclusively to teaching songs, called Cuicalli . Nahuatl poetry abounds in parallelism (repetition of the same idea throughout a stanza or paragraph), difrasismo (the combination of two complementary concepts to express the same idea), particular symbols and imagery, emphasis on certain words and phrases, as well as the use of metaphors and similes. All these stylistic devices characterize the speech and expression of the ancient Mexicans. 

Specialist Birgitta Leander has compiled a list of difrasismos found in Nahuatl poetic expression, making their meanings more comprehensible to the reader. She highlights, for example, that to express the idea of beauty, the concepts of "jade and fine feathers" were combined, objects highly valued by Mexican nobles; to express the idea of woman, the words "skirt and blouse" were added; the idea of a person was conveyed by combining the words "face and heart," and so on. In this way, artistic expression was achieved through allusions, resulting in a high degree of metaphorical language in poetic language. The Yaocuícatl , or war song, provides a good example of parallelism. The first two lines, “from where the eagles perch/from where the tigers stand tall,” create, through two parallel phrases, the idea of war, since the most prominent militia groups were the Eagle Knights and the Tiger Knights; naming them established a clear, always parallel, allusion to war. Regarding the versification of Nahuatl poetry, James Lockhart and Frances Karttunen state that Nahua verses are “units of expression.” That is, the verses are not constructed based on a linear structure that progresses rigidly and orderly from verse to verse, but rather the verses can be arranged and rearranged in different parts of the poem because they are independent. The verses are related by belonging to the same central theme; therefore, linear ordering is not necessary. 

Huehuetlaohtolli , or the prose of the elders, who were considered the keepers of wisdom and knowledge. In these texts, we find speeches where parents advise their children on how to lead a dignified life, as well as the responses that young people give to their parents or grandparents in gratitude for their advice. This prose also reveals descriptions of what a tlamatini (a wise person) or a temachtiani (a teacher) should be. Miguel León Portilla, the foremost researcher of the Nahuatl world, has identified the main categories of huehuetlaohtolli , highlighting five basic variants. Finally, the tlahtolli are documents that showcase both the literary language of the ancient Nahua people and their beliefs and philosophies. Thanks to the impressive work of Fray Bernardino de Sahagún [1] , who dedicated himself to the study of the Nahuatl world for seventy years, we now possess examples of a literary expression that enriches the current landscape of Mexican literature. 

Mayan literature 

The literature of the Maya-Quiché peoples that we know today includes three fundamental works: 

• 1) The Books of Chilam Balam , which, according to Miguel León Portilla, number eighteen, of which only three have been studied in depth: the Chilam Balam of Chumayel , the Chilam Balam of Tizimín , and the Chilam Balam of Maní . These books were written by the chilamoob —high-ranking Mayan priests in the Yucatán region—and symbolically recreate mythological events and compile religious, historical, literary, and astronomical knowledge from various periods. Their stories also have a prophetic character, as is the case with the legend of Vucub-Caquix, which narrates the arrival of the dzules , that is, the Spanish foreigners. 

• 

  Plato Blom. Representación de escena del Popol Vuh

• 2) The Book of the Council , or Popol Vuh, named after a priest who lived shortly before the conquest and predicted the arrival of the Europeans, is the most representative literary text of pre-Hispanic literatures due to its widespread dissemination throughout the world. This book was transcribed after the massacre ordered by the Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado in a region of Guatemala. Witnessing such bloody destruction, the priests of the area set out to transcribe their stories into the Latin alphabet, fearing the destruction of their codices (collections of documents) by the conquistadors. The Popol Vuh is divided into three parts. The first part recounts the creation of the world and the various attempts by the gods to create humankind. The second part narrates the war between the true gods and the false gods. The third part describes the various migrations and genealogies of the Quiché people. Since they possessed a cyclical conception of the universe in which the stars and time were considered deities, it can be assumed that their scientific interest arose from the need to better understand these deities in order to facilitate earthly life. 

• 3) The play Rabinal-Achí narrates the fight between two warriors: Rabinal Achí and Quiché Achí. Rabinal wins the battle and leads his opponent before the king, Rabinal's father. The characters begin to argue, and the drama ends with the death of Quiché Achí. This lengthy play abounds in parallelism, polite expressions, and repetitions characteristic of pre-Columbian speech. However, due to the complexity of its writing, it has not been fully deciphered. 

Quechua literature 

Quechua literature, or Runasimi , the language of the Incas and the peoples under their dominion, presents a significant obstacle: the lack of a pictographic or ideographic writing system. The only known system of signs consists of quipus: cords with colored knots arranged in such a way that information could be stored through their arrangement and colors. 

Quipu inca del Museo Larco (Lima)

Researchers have not yet been able to decipher any of the quipus and postulate that they are accounting instruments, due to the decimal arrangement of their knots. Consequently, no known documents remain that allow for in-depth study of their literature; therefore, it is necessary to rely on other sources to recover their humanistic contributions. The only existing accounts belong to the colonial period and come from chroniclers. Among the main chroniclers are: Cieza de León, Guamán Poma, Cristóbal de Molina, Blas Valera, Juan de Santa Cruz Pachakuti, and Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. In contemporary times, the prominent Bolivian anthropologist Jesús Lara spurred the investigation of the literary evidence contained in the various chronicles. Lara also maintained that the quipus actually comprise a language that has not yet been deciphered but that contains historical, geographical, literary, astronomical, legal, and economic knowledge of Inca society. 

From the information gleaned from colonial texts, it is possible to observe some parallels with the organization of the Nahua world. The Incas, like the Nahua people of the central valley of Mexico, placed great importance on poetry; their songs were present in funeral ceremonies, agricultural work, and official celebrations. Just as the Nahua had elders and wise men, or tlamatinimes, who transmitted philosophical and religious knowledge, the Incas had amautas, historians and philosophers who disseminated knowledge and were in charge of dramatic performances. Since the amautas were part of the imperial retinue, they created compositions to celebrate military victories, the ascension to the throne of the new Inca, the most important events of his reign, as well as religious hymns to venerate the rulers and their deities. Alongside them were the haravicus , or “poetry inventors,” who often recited their verses accompanied by the audience. Another interesting parallel between the Incas and the ancient Mexicans can be seen in the education of the elite. Just as nobles in the Nahua world attended the Calmecac , Inca nobles attended the Yachayhuasi , where they received a literary education. However, despite their similarities, there is a fundamental difference between these two pre-Hispanic cultural organizations. Jesús Lara points out that poetry was not, for the Quechua, the exclusive domain of the nobility, as it was in the case of the ancient Mexicans, but could be studied and composed by members of the lower strata of the Inca social structure. 

Regarding his poetry, the following classification can be established: 

Jailli were triumphal songs sung to glorify the gods, with Viracoch being the principal deity. The second classification of jailli comprises heroic songs that extolled war and the valor of battles. The third classification refers to the agricultural song variant, which was sung to celebrate sowing and harvesting. 

Wawaki are songs in the form of a dialogue, sung by a male and a female chorus that alternate throughout the composition. Jesús Lara mentions that wawaki were sung during festivities in honor of the moon. 

Arawi , songs that refer to intimate life—love, loneliness, sadness—and imprisonment. A representative work of this genre is the dramatic work known as Ollantay , a play that continues to be performed in Andean villages today. Although its indigenous authenticity is questioned, it may be a dramatic adaptation of a legend that circulated orally among the Quechua people. 

Wayñu , this genre of poetry was accompanied by a musical and dance troupe and was of a collective nature. 

In contrast to the poetry of ancient Mexico, the few surviving examples of Inca poetry are primarily religious in nature. The most abundant and varied compositions of Inca culture are found in the Primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno (First New Chronicle and Good Government) by the Andean chronicler Guamán Poma. Likewise, Inca Garcilaso de la Vega dedicated a chapter of his Comentarios Reales (Royal Commentaries ) to describing Inca poetry (Book 11, Chapter XXVII). 

The literary expressions of pre-Hispanic cultures capture the pride of their peoples, their diverse epistemologies, and express their aspirations for a better future. Their narratives reaffirm the resilience of Indigenous peoples and the cultural and linguistic heterogeneity of the Latin American continent. Natalio Hernández Xocoyotzin, a bilingual poet in Nahuatl and Spanish, has expressed the dynamic between pre-Hispanic and Spanish heritage. He compares Spanish to the ahuehuete tree, which provides shelter and shade. This tree, that is, Spanish, is nourished by the Indigenous languages that give Latin American Spanish its distinctive characteristics. His literature reaffirms the resilience of diverse Indigenous groups and the cultural plurality of their peoples. 

Activities on the introduction 

Vocabulary in context 

After reading the introduction, define the following terms in English and in your own words: 

• Quipus: 

• Native Americans: 

• Catechist friars: 

• Pre-Columbian/Pre-Hispanic Literature: 

• Nahuatl: 

• Inxóchitl: 

• Parallelisms (include an example different from those in the text): 

• Difrasismos (include an example different from those in the text): 

• Codices (do an internet search to expand on the definition given in the text and include some examples of codices): 

• Quechua: 

• Calmecac and School: 

• Tlamatinime: 

• Pictographic or ideographic writing: 

General comprehension questions

1) Why can indigenous testimonies be considered colonial documents? Who was involved in their collection during the first decades of the colony and for what purpose did they do so? 

2) What were some ways of preserving knowledge in indigenous cultures? 

3) What is the importance of pre-Hispanic literatures in the contemporary world? 

4) What function did poetry have in the area of ancient Mexico? Explain its content. 

5) What are the characteristics of the metaphorical language of Nahuatl poetry? 

6) Who were the amautas and the haravicus and how are they related to the development of indigenous poetry? 

7) What do you understand by “cultural heterogeneity” and what role do indigenous literatures play in defining this concept? 

Primary texts  

Reading: Nahuatl Literature 

The flowers and the songs [2] 

Xochicuícatl 

Version by Miguel León Portilla 

From within the sky they come 

The beautiful flowers, the beautiful songs. [3] 

Our longing makes them ugly, 

Our inventiveness spoils them, [4] 

except for those of the Chichimec prince Tecayehuatzin. 

Rejoice with his people! 

Friendship is a shower of precious flowers. 

White tufts [5] of heron feathers, 

They are intertwined with beautiful red flowers: 

on the branches of the trees, 

They walk and drink beneath them 

the lords and the nobles. 

Your beautiful song: 

A golden rattlesnake, you raise it up so beautifully. [6] 

You are in a flower enclosure. 

You sing on the flowering branches. 

Are you perhaps a precious bird of the Giver of Life? 

Have you spoken to God? 

As soon as you saw the dawn, 

You started to sing. 

Strive, my heart desires, 

the flowers on the shield, 

the flowers of the Giver of Life. 

What can my heart do? 

We have come here in vain, 

we have sprouted from the earth. 

Is this the only way I have to leave? 

like the flowers that perished? 

Will nothing remain of my name? [7] 

None of my fame here on earth? 

At least flowers, at least songs! 

What can my heart do? 

We have come here in vain, 

we have sprouted from the earth. 

Let us rejoice, oh friends, 

There will be hugs here. 

Now we walk on the flowery land. 

Nobody will end this here 

the flowers and the songs 

They endure in the house of the Giver of life. 

Here on earth is the region of the fleeting moment. 

Is it also like that in the place 

where one somehow lives? 

Is one happy there? 

Is there friendship there? 

Or only here on Earth 

Have we come here to see our faces? 

Reflection and analysis questions

1) Comment on the emotional and philosophical attitude that is derived from this poem. 

2) Explain the importance of the repeated image of flowers in Nahuatl poetry. 

3) What is the concept of fame? And according to the poem, what is the only thing that should endure on earth? 

4) How is nature described and what does it tell us about the relationship of the ancient Mexicans and their environment? 

Excavación en El Mirador, Petén, Guatemala – El panel representa otra escena del Popol Vuh

Reading: Mayan Literature 

From Popol Vuh 

The legend of Vucub-Caquix [8] 

Translation by Adrián Recinos 

There was then very little light on the face of the earth. There was still no sun. However, there was a being proud of himself who was called Vucub-Caquix. [9] The sky and the earth already existed, but the face of the sun and the moon was hidden. And he (Vucub-Caquix) said: [10] -Truly, they are a clear example of those men who drowned, and their nature is like that of supernatural beings. 

"I will now be great above all created and formed beings. I am the sun, I am the light, the moon," he exclaimed. "Great is my splendor. Through me, men will walk and conquer. For my eyes are silver, resplendent like precious stones, like emeralds; my teeth gleam like fine stones, like the face of the sky. My nose shines from afar like the moon, my throne is silver, and the face of the earth is illuminated when I appear before my throne." 

Thus, I am the sun, I am the moon, for the human race. So it shall be, for my sight reaches far. 

This is how Vucub-Caquix spoke. But in truth, Vucub-Caquix was not the sun; he only boasted of his feathers and riches. But his vision reached only the horizon and did not extend over the whole world. 

The face of the sun, the moon, and the stars was not yet visible, and dawn had not yet broken. For this reason, Vucub-Caquix boasted as if he were the sun and the moon, because the light of the sun and the moon had not yet appeared or been displayed. His only ambition was to aggrandize himself and dominate. And it was then that the flood occurred because of the wooden figures. [11] 

Now we will tell how Vucub Caquix died and was defeated, and how man was made by the Creator and Former. 

This is the beginning of the defeat and ruin of Vucub Caquix's glory at the hands of the two boys, the first of whom was named Hunahpú [12] and the second Ixbalanqué. These were truly gods. Seeing the evil that the proud one was doing, and that he wanted to do it in the presence of the Heart of Heaven, the boys said to one another 

"It is not right that things should be this way, when man does not yet live here on earth. So, we will try shooting him with the blowgun while he is eating; we will shoot him and cause him to have a disease, and then his riches, his green stones, his precious metals, his emeralds, his jewels of which he is so proud will be gone. And so all men will do, for they should not become vain because of power or wealth." 

"That's how it will be," said the boys, each slinging his blowgun over his shoulder. 

Reflection and analysis questions

1) What does “The Legend of Vucub-Caquix” tell? What is its moral or lesson? 

2) Explain the need that all cultures express to create their own mythology. 

3) Are there any similarities between the myths in your culture and the indigenous myths described in the reading?

Ejemplar del Libro de Chilam Balam de Chumayel en el Museo de Antropología de México.

From the Books of Chilam Balam of Chumayel 

The Dzules [13] 

Translation by Demetrio Sodi 

This is what I write: In 1541 was the first arrival of the Dzules, the foreigners, from the East. They came to Ecab, that is its name. And it happened that they came to the Water Gate, to Ecab, to the town of Nacom Balam, in the beginning of the days of the years of the eleventh katun. [14] Fifteen twenty-year periods [15] before the arrival of the Dzules, the Itzáes [16] dispersed. The town of Zaciahtun was abandoned, the town of Kinchil Coba was abandoned, Chichén Itzá was abandoned, Uxmal was abandoned, and south of Uxmal, Kabah, that is its name, was abandoned. Zeye, Pakam, Homtun, the town of Tixcalomkin, and Ake, the one with the stone gates, were abandoned. [17] 

The town where the rain falls, Etzemal, was abandoned, there where the son of the All-God descended, the lord of heaven, the lord-lady, the miraculous virgin. [18] And the lord said: “Lower the shields of Kinich Kakmo.” One can no longer reign here. But the Miraculous One, the Merciful One, remains. “Lower the ropes, lower the belts fallen from heaven. Lower the word fallen from heaven.” And thus the other peoples paid homage to his lordship; thus it was said that the lord-gods of Etzemal were of no use. 

And then the great Itzáes departed. Thirteen times four hundred times four hundred thousand and fifteen times four hundred times four hundred hundreds the Itzáes lived as heretics. [19] But they departed and with them their disciples, who sustained them and who were very numerous. Thirteen measures was Iximal and the head of the count of those of Iximal there were nine almudes and three oc. [20] And the children of the people went with their gods before and behind. 

Their spirits rejected the Dzules and their Christianity. They offered no tribute, neither the spirits of the birds, nor the precious stones, nor the carved stones, nor the tigers that protected them. Sixteen hundred and three hundred years, and their lives would end. They knew how to measure time, even within themselves. The moon, the wind, the year, the day: everything moves, but also passes. All blood reaches its resting place, just as all power reaches its throne. The time was measured when the greatness of the Three would be praised. [21] Measured was the time of the sun's goodness, of the lattice formed by the stars, from where the gods contemplate us. The good lords of the stars, all of them good. [22] 

They possessed wisdom, holiness; there was no evil in them. There was health, devotion; there was no sickness, no bone pain, no fever or smallpox, no chest or stomach pain. [23] They walked upright. But the Dzules came and destroyed everything. They taught fear, withered the flowers, sucked the lifeblood out of others so that their own might live. They killed the flower of the Nac-xit Xuchit. There were no longer any priests to teach us. And so the second era settled, began to reign, and was the cause of our death. Without priests, without wisdom, without courage, and without shame, all were equal. There was no great wisdom, no word, no teaching from the lords. The gods who came here were of no use. The Dzules had come only to castrate the Sun! And their children's children remained among us, receiving only their bitterness. 

Reflection and analysis questions 

1) What does the Mayan legend of “The dzules” tell us? 

2) What historical and literary importance does the fragment of “Los dzules” have? 

3) What feelings emerge from this passage? What was the Mayan view of the Spanish? 

4) How are the Spanish and Mayan cultures contrasted in the legend? 

5) Discuss the literary importance of this Mayan testimony. 

 

Reading: Quechua Literature

First prayer to the maker Jailli ^[24] 

Version of Jesus Lara 

Root of being, Viracocha, 
God always near, 
Lord of garments 

dazzling 
God who governs and preserves, 
Who creates simply by saying: 
“Let there be man, 

"Let it be a woman." 
The being you placed 
and raised. 

Let him live free. 

And without danger. 

Where are you? 

Outside the world, 
inside the world, 

In the midst of the clouds 
or in the midst of the shadows? 

Listen to me, 

Answer me. 
Make me live. 

For many days, 
until the age when I must 
turn gray. 
Lift me up 
, take me in your arms. 

And in my weariness, 

Help me 
wherever you are, 

Father Viracocha 

 

Reflection and analysis questions 

1) What is the role of religion in Quechua culture and how is the importance of religion manifested in the jailli ? 

2) What images are used to allude to divinity? 

3) What relationship between the person and the divinity does the poetic voice propose? 

4) What does the poetic voice ask of the Creator? What fear does the poetic voice express? 

5) Can you relate this jailli to another religious prayer? 

Topics to develop 

1) In groups of four, imagine you belong to the ancient Aztec nobility and want to write a poem to present to your friends. Choose a variant of Nahuatl poetry and, using rhetorical devices such as difrasismo, parallelism, and metaphor, write a short poem. You can choose one of the following themes: a eulogy to the gods of nature, a love song, a war song, or the experience of the fall of the great city of Tenochtitlán to Hernán Cortés's troops. Be prepared to share. 

2) The Role of Missionaries in Relation to Ancient American Knowledge - Which were the most well-known religious orders that arrived in the New World? What was the purpose of these missions? What kind of religious instruction did they offer? Why the interest in studying native languages? What role did they play in preserving indigenous culture? How can the impact of these missionaries be seen in Latin American culture? 

3) The Impact of the Latin Alphabet on the Amerindian World – As we know, when the Spanish arrived in America, they introduced various aspects of Western culture to the pre-Columbian cultures. One of these aspects was the introduction of the Spanish language. Considering the status given to Spanish in relation to indigenous languages, answer the following questions: What were the consequences of the contact between Spanish and indigenous languages such as Quechua in Bolivia, Guarani in Paraguay, or Nahuatl in Mexico? How were the native cultures affected, and how is this reflected to this day? What were the advantages and disadvantages of having only ONE official language? 

4) Modes of Indigenous Resistance to Colonization - Bearing in mind that acts of resistance against invasion and colonial domination can unfold in diverse ways, explore one of the methods and forms of Indigenous resistance from the arrival of Europeans to the American continent in the 16th century until the emancipation of the colonies in the 18th century. You can choose one of the following topics: Military tactics (rebellions), cultural resistance (syncretism of religion/language/traditions), use of legal systems (such as appeals in the courts), writing of chronicles and accounts (Felipe Guamán Poma, Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, Hernando de Alvarado Tezozómoc, etc.). 

5) Function and Importance of Indigenous Myths - All cultures throughout history have developed a worldview based on myths. Explore their importance in the creation of a cultural identity. You can use these questions as a guide: What is a myth? Who invents them and for whom? How were they transmitted and preserved? What is their purpose? What are their teachings? Is there an aspect that is consistently repeated in different myths? What is their cultural value? Are there any myths in your culture that resemble any indigenous myths? Why is it important to learn about them? What is their significance in indigenous cultures and identities today? 

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1. Friar Bernardino de Sahagún (Sahagún, Spain, 1499 or 1500 – Mexico, 1590) was a catechist of the Franciscan Order. In 1529, he traveled to Mexico and there worked on the conversion of the indigenous Mexicans. He learned the Nahuatl language and researched Mayan culture and beliefs. He translated his research into Spanish and wrote his fundamental work: General History of the Things of New Spain. This text contains twelve volumes and narrates aspects of Mayan culture such as their gods, their festivals, their beliefs about the immortality of the soul, their astrological knowledge, and their intellectual and political life. It also contains a dictionary of the Nahuatl language and recounts the conquest of Mexico from the indigenous perspective. 

2. The poem belongs to the text Dialogue of the Flower and the Song and is part of the manuscript Mexican Songs, folio 14. Its author is Prince Tecayehuatzin. 

3. “The beautiful flowers, the beautiful songs” is the most frequently repeated metaphor in Nahuatl poetry . 

4. The poet's limited literary skill is what detracts from the beauty of the songs, which are intrinsically beautiful. The poet displays a position of humility before such magnificent art . 

5. designates friendship ↵ 

6. The poet describes poetic song as a golden rattlesnake. Note the high esteem the ancient Mexicans placed on the beauty of birds . 

7. This philosophical question echoes the concerns expressed by other Nahua poets in their poetry. The answer exemplifies the position of poetry in the Nahua world: if everything else must disappear, at least let the songs survive. 

8. Passage from the Popol Vuh, a book containing narratives of the Maya-Quiché people collected by Father Francisco Ximénez. This Andalusian priest arrived in Guatemala in 1688 and was appointed parish priest of Chichicastenango, a region of Guatemala. It was during this time that he discovered the manuscript written in Latin characters known as the Chichicastenango Manuscript, which contained the text of the Popol Vuh. Ximénez translated it into Spanish and dedicated himself to recovering the histories of the Maya people. This passage narrates the struggle between the true gods and the false gods . 

9. The name Vucub-Caquix has been translated by Adrián Recinos as “Seven Macaws”, while Miguel Ángel Asturias translates it as “Main Macaw” . 

10. Vucub-Caquix, who is admiring the monkeys, is alluding to the flood narrated earlier. In this flood, human beings were transformed into monkeys by the gods. Vucub-Caquix, being the only man to survive the flood who was not turned into a monkey, becomes arrogant and proclaims himself a god. 

11. The stick figures: the human beings created by the gods before the flood. These beings were exterminated for not praising the gods. In Mayan mythology, there were several attempts by the gods to create true human beings . 

12. Hunahpú is translated as “Master Magician” and Ixbalanqué as “Wizard” ↵ 

13. This fragment comes from the Chilam Balam of Chuyamel, one of the eighteen versions or books of Chilam Balam known to this day. These books were written after the Spanish Conquest and narrate the beliefs, mythologies, and genealogies of the Maya-Quiché people. Chilam is the Maya name the community gave to priests, and balam means sorcerer and also jaguar. Chuyamel is the name of the Yucatecan region where the manuscript originates, a facsimile edition of which was published in 1913 . 

14. Date given in Mayan numerals. The katun refers to a 20-year cycle that recurs in 160-year periods ; the sign “eleven ahau” is a period of years ruled by hardship. The date “katun eleven ahau” pinpoints the moment when Spanish rule was firmly established in Yucatán (1541). 

15. The Mayan numerical system was vigesimal; the number mentioned (1241) refers to the time when the Maya abandoned their main cities. Many theories explain this abandonment by religious, historical, political, and/or agricultural causes; however, the definitive cause for the abandonment of the main Mayan cities is still unknown . 

16. Maya who refused to accept the Christianity brought by colonization. They lived independently until 1697, when they were subjected to Spanish rule . 

17. A detailed description of the towns and ceremonial centers abandoned by the Maya before the arrival of the Spanish . 

18. The Lord of the Sky exhibits the feminine-masculine duality characteristic of the supreme Mayan and Nahua gods. 

19. The complex figure is meant to express that the Itzaes decided categorically not to accept any religion other than their own. Above all, they rejected, as far as possible, the Christian religion . 

20. old measure that approximates five liters ↵ 

21. Reference to the deity known as the Heart of Heaven, who, in the Popol Vuh passage, is the one who determines Vucub-Caquix's punishment. This deity possessed a triptych configuration: Caculhá-Huaracán, Chipi-Caculhá, and Raxa-Caculhá . 

22. This elegy to the Mayan gods reveals the grief of the ancient Mexicans at the extinction of their culture . 

23. Smallpox did not exist among the pre-Hispanic peoples. When this disease arrived, it caused devastating epidemics and high mortality rates . 

24. Poem recovered by Father Cristóbal de Molina in 1575, included in his book Fables and Rites of the Incas .