11.1.2: Science literature
- Page ID
- 261548
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Science literature includes everything from books to technical reports, to scholarly articles in specialized journals, to popular articles. Primary sources are especially important because they are written by scientists who have conducted the research they are reporting on. Secondary sources draw from this primary research and include articles published in periodicals such as Scientific American or the New York Times. Popular articles like these are meant to make the complex and/or technical language of science understandable for non-scientists. The authors of these popular sources usually cite their original sources so that they can be referenced by others who want to learn more. Citations can be found using library databases or simple internet searches, though they may be restricted behind paywalls.
Professional scientific papers usually have 5 sections:
- an introduction
- a narrative description of materials and methods used in the scientific investigation that the article is discussing
- the results of the experiment(s)
- a discussion of the results
- a conclusion
Reading one of these articles may feel overwhelming, especially if it is written in highly technical language. An efficient way to read professional scholarly articles is to follow these steps:
- Read the abstract and conclusion; skim the reference list
- Skim the article and look for the most relevant sections for your purposes
- Read important parts more closely
- If you decide to use the paper for your research, read select sections more closely and annotate them (preferably on a printed copy)
In addition, be prepared to do some lateral reading to find additional sources or conduct further research to verify the information you find. If you decide to quote information in a source that comes from another original resource, find the original to use for your quote.
Science relies on outside validation of reported findings and the acknowledgement that new results may change earlier interpretations. This is another instance where lateral reading is important. Also, keep in mind that scientists are humans, and their personal biases may influence their reports (“The cart leading the horse”). For example, an especially serious case has done profound damage on human health. In 1998 Andrew Wakefield, a British gastroenterologist, and several colleagues published an article in a well-respected medical journal that linked Autism Spectrum Disorder with a common childhood vaccine, which in turn caused the number of children who received the MMR (measles, mumps, and rubella) vaccine to decline (Rao & Andrade). Other scientists disproved Wakefield’s results, showing that the MMR vaccine could not be linked to Autism. The journal later retracted the original article due to the authors’ multiple “ethical violations” and “scientific misrepresentation” linked to their fraudulent interpretation of information and having received funding from “lawyers who had been engaged by parents in lawsuits against vaccine-producing companies” (ibid.). While this is far from common, it is essential to retain a healthy sense of skepticism (yet also be open to new ideas!) when reading primary scientific literature.