The Many Challenges English Presents to Native and Non-Native Speakers
Companion to PowerPoint Presentation
Paul Butera, PhD
Richard Daley College, One of the City Colleges of Chicago
Our society may be divided, but one thing unifies us all. Immigrants and the native born, liberals and conservatives, blue collar and white, Northerners and Southerners, and Westerners and Easterners should all be able to agree that learning to write English effectively is challenging because of the language’s complexities and inconsistencies. If you are struggling with run-on sentences, identifying the correct preposition, or writing lucid, comprehensible sentences, you are not alone. We all find English challenging.
Immigrants, for whom English is a second language, must find learning to communicate in English especially frustrating, and their frustration must be compounded by the tendency of many Americans, as commentator Amanda Machado has argued, to view foreign languages “through a lens of suspicion and disdain” (NBC News Digital).
The purpose of this lesson is to explore the distinctive qualities of English that make it both difficult to master and uniquely robust. We look at the history of the language to understand why it is so complicated and its rules are so unpredictable. We also explore how this complexity enabled the evolution of a uniquely rich, adaptable, and nuanced language. Finally, we look at the value of bilingualism, and why it should build the confidence of multi-lingual students rather than make them feel inadequate and isolated. In the end, we believe this information will help native born and immigrant students of English composition recognize that they are not alone in their struggles and that their predecessors faced the same uncertainties in the process of becoming persuasive, confident, and adept writers.
“Crazy Inconsistencies”
In his “English language: Crazy inconsistencies”, Professor Albrecht Classen has described this challenge in compelling terms:
Let’s face it, English is a crazy language. There is no egg in eggplant, nor ham in hamburger; neither apple nor pine are in pineapple. English muffins aren’t English, nor are French fries French. Sweetmeats are candies, while sweetbreads—which aren’t sweet—are meat. We take English for granted, but if we explore some of its paradoxes, we find that quicksand is slow, boxing rings are square, and a guinea pig is neither from Guinea nor a pig! (“English language: Crazy inconsistencies.”)
As Dr. Claussen indicates, among English’s chief challenges are its vast vocabulary, strange idioms, and unpredictable pronunciations. In their article on the BBC Radio 4 website, Beth Sagar-Fenton and Lizzy McNeill point out that the Oxford English Dictionary contains almost 200,000 words, including 47,156 obsolete words and 171,476 active words (“How Many Words”).
The possible confusion engendered by the language’s vocabulary is evident in the following sentence: Following his desertion and to avoid his just deserts, the officer devoured his dessert in the deserted desert. How strange it is that the officer avoids his “just deserts”—his punishment for his desertion—by fleeing to the arid desert to eat his dessert, which is a sweet treat and not at all like punishment or an empty arid landscape.
Of course, the eccentricities of English are not limited to its expansive vocabulary. The rules governing English grammar are often inconsistent and not always applicable. In grammar school, we memorized, “I before E, except after C.” However, as we grew up, we discovered that the rule does always apply. Even many common words break the law (e.g. “species,” “weird,” “leisure,” and “foreign”).
We also are mystified by some plural conventions:
- The plural forms of some words are the same as their singular forms (e.g. fish, series, elk, and deer).
- Some words that come from Latin have Latinate plurals (e.g. syllabus and syllabi, genus and genera, index and indices, and matrix and matrices).
- Nouns that end in -f or -fe occasionally form their plurals by changing the f to a v and adding s or es. (e.g. calf and calves, live and lives, knife and knives, and half and halves).
- Finally, some plural forms of nouns demand memorization, because there is no clear logic to their formation (child and children, goose and geese, person and people, and mouse and mice).
We are further mystified by inconsistencies in forming past tense. At first, we are relieved to learn a simple rule: If a verb ends in -e, you add -d. If a verb ends in a vowel and a consonant, the consonant is usually doubled before -ed. If a verb ends in consonant and -y, you take off the y and add -ied. But if the word ends in a vowel and -y, you add -ed. “ed” to a verb to indicate past tense except when you don’t. Simple—until we discover spit and spat, swim and swam, sleep and slept, and on and on and on.
Finally, English’s strange idioms often cause more frustration. We urge an actor to break a leg to ensure good luck; we emulate a cold turkey to break an addiction, and when someone dies, we proclaim that they “kicked the bucket.”
Why is English so confusing? Many of those frustrating irregularities, conflicting rules, and exceptions arose from the nation that conquered Great Britain and other cultures that had their own influence. Although its main roots are in the languages of the Germanic tribes that dominated England from c. 450 CE until c. 1150 CE, the Celts, Vikings, Romans, and French introduced their own languages to Britain’s early history, enriching English with unique characteristics that gave the language a special richness. In addition, over the years, many other cultures have made or are still making their own contributions. The global reach of the British Empire, a worldwide system of dependencies—colonies, protectorates, and other territories—assured the influences of many diverse cultures. At its height in 1922, Great Britain controlled roughly a quarter of the world’s landmass population and ruling more the 458 million people.
Five Cultures
A brief look at the five peoples that first shaped the cultures and languages of Great Britain reveal their influence on today’s English and why it is so complex.
The Celtic people were not a unified people but loosely linked together by similar languages, customs, and religious practices. The Celts did not conquer Britain but infiltrated it between 500 to 100 BCE, bringing the Iron Age to Britain.
The family of six living Celtic languages is divided into two groups: Brythonic and Goidelic. The Brythonic languages include Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. Welsh and Breton are continuously living languages. Cornish, the language of Cornwall in southwestern England, became extinct but was revived in the 20th century. Breton is still spoken in Brittany. The Goidelic languages include Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic. This group of language originated in Ireland. The other two Goidelic languages are associated with the Isle of Man (Manx) and Scotland (Scottish Gaelic).
The five Celtic languages spoken in Ancient Britain were very different from each other, which is evident when you compare the phrase “I live in Wales”, as written in the five versions of the language:
- Welsh - Dw i'n byw yng Nghymru
- Cornish - Trigys ov yn Kembra
- Irish - Tá mé i mo chónaí sa Bhreatain Bheag
- Scots Gaelic - Tha mi a' fuireach anns a' Chuimrigh
- Manx - Ta mee cummal 'sy Vretyn
The Romans brought Latin to Ancient Britain. Julius Caesar invaded England in 55 BCE and re-invaded a year later, but he failed to conquer the island nation. In 43 CE, Emperor Claudius launched a more ambitious invasion; the Roman conquest was complete in 77 CE; 333 years later the Britons expelled the Romans and won their independence. Latin’s influence in Roman Britain was somewhat limited, and it did not displace the Celtic languages, which remained the speech of the common people. Christianity would have a greater influence in introducing elements of Latin.
The language of the German tribes of northern Germany and southern Scandinavia had a much greater influence on modern English than Latin. The languages of the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons formed the basis of Anglos Saxon, which was the dominant language in England from c. 450 CE until c. 1150 CE. Approximately 30 percent of the modern English vocabulary is of Anglo-Saxon origin, which is the source of many of our functional linking words (prepositions, conjunctions, and articles), such as to, from, and, but, however, when, since, the, and an). We can attribute many of our most familiar nouns to the Anglo Saxons, including mother, father, one, two, ten, house, home, bread, water, harvest, cow, sun, eat, drink, talk, good, bad, old, and young.
The seafaring Vikings, or Norsemen, brought Old Norse to Britain and introduced Scandinavian elements into English. The Vikings traveled great distances from their homelands (modern Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.) in small open boats as far as North America to the west, Russia to the east, Lapland to the north, and the Mediterranean World (Constantinople) and Iraq (Baghdad) to the south. Great Britain’s “Viking Age” lasted from approximately 800 to 1150. Approximately 35,000 Vikings may have relocated to England. Eventually, these newcomers settled across the country, marrying into local families. Words such as sky, skin, wagon originated in the language of the Vikings.
William, the Duke of Normandy, was the last leader to successfully invade England. In 1066, he defeated Harold, King of England, at the Battle of Hastings and made Norman French the official language of England for administration, education, literature, and law. Anglo-Saxon remained the language spoken of the general public. However, Norman French had an influence on modern English, and many of the words we speak today are of French origin, including government, law, pork, army, art, literature, shirt, and cuisine.
An Agent of Global Unity
Of course, the influence of these five cultures on the English was just the beginning of the evolution of the language, which has become the nearest thing we have to a global language and an agent of global unity. Despite its challenging complexity, people throughout the world have adopted English in addition to their native language. According to Statista, approximately 1.5 billion people speak English natively or as a second language, making it the most spoken language in the world (“The most spoken languages worldwide”) and it has become the global lingua franca of science, government and diplomacy, media, art, and entertainment.
It seems odd that the nation with the most English speakers in the world—the United States—also has a tradition of linguistic racism and resistance to multilingualism. Nooshan Ashari and Stephen Krashen of the USC Rossier School of Education define this "as the mistreatment, devaluation, and acts of discrimination towards people based on their language use or perceptions about their ethnicities” (“Confronting Linguistic Racism”).
America’s version of this bigotry even had a pseudo-scientific basis. As late as 1947, according to Sarah Vicol of Stanford University, anti-immigrant prejudice encouraged respected researchers to claim “that bilingualism was a cause of mental retardation, arguing that the amount of brain “capacity” required to store two distinct languages systems meant less space for other knowledge and abilities (“The Politics of Bilingualism in the United States”).
The pernicious belief that knowing more than one language is a negative persists. As Amanda Machado points out, almost four in 10 Latinos say they experienced some kind of harassment related to their ethnicity. According to psychiatrist Paul C. Hollinger, discrimination can “be potentially destructive in terms of undermining a child’s development and sense of self—by eliciting distress, fear, shame, self-disgust, and rage”. This attitude had on personal impact on Machado who explains how living in the United had taught her “to become ashamed of her own father and believe that his deeply accented and imperfect English made our family less worthy than others” (“The Role of Language in Bias, Prejudice and Violence”).
Professional Communicator Diana Drake also speaks movingly about hers struggle with an “overwhelming feeling of inadequacy” prompted by linguistic racism.
Eighteen years later, I still recall the shame of being scolded for my inability to communicate in the appropriate way – in this case, fully in English. . .. I was wounded and crying. I remember thinking to myself that I wouldn’t speak in class unless I absolutely had to. It was an overwhelming feeling of inadequacy; something a four-year-old girl should never experience (“Student’s Struggle to speak English”).
However, according to Drake, her struggle with English turned out to be a blessing. Not knowing English forced her to work harder and stay focused in class. She writes, “I paid close attention to how people spoke and pronounced words. When I was tired and wanted to stop, I had to keep studying” (“Student’s Struggle to speak English”).
Drake’s admission highlights a great irony articulated by Machado:
There is no pride in Spanish/English bilingualism, even though several studies have proven the many cognitive benefits of speaking two languages: increased focus, better problem-solving skills, delaying the onset of dementia and even a link to higher levels of empathy” (“How the U.S. taught me that Spanish was shameful”). Drake herself speaks of impact of her bilingualism on her empathy: The fact that I am not a native English speaker has made me more empathetic. It has helped me truly understand why diversity of thought is such a strength in the workplace, and, ironically, has made me a far more effective communicator” (“Student’s Struggle to speak English”).
In the end, America’s attitude about bilingualism has put it at a cultural and competitive disadvantage. For example, people throughout Europe speak multiple languages. According to the U.S. Census, 20% of Americans speak two or more languages, which compares to 54% of Europeans. According to Alberto Nardelli, The percentages of people who are able to speak two or more languages are particularly high in Luxembourg (98%) Latvia (95%), the Netherlands (94%), Malta (93%) Slovenia and Lithuania (92% each), and Sweden (91%) (Alberto Nardelli).”
“If they can do it. . .”
The global spread of English suggests that we can all overcome its complexity and take advantage of its rich diversity. There are an estimated 1.5 billion English speakers in the world. If they can do it, who are we to say we cannot? Our review of the history of English explains why we are intimated by its challenges. The fault is not in us or in our abilities, but in the nature of the beast itself. And, if we are an immigrant who grew up in a home in which the dominant language was not English, we should not see that as an embarrassment but as a point of pride. Moreover, as a bilingual person, we have likely developed some cognitive strengths that will assist us in our studies.
We also know that the struggle will be worth the effort, because the language’s complexities and inconsistencies are signs of its strengths. English is not a single language, but an amalgamation of many languages that has captured the essences of a multitude of cultures. We have a vast vocabulary to learn, but that only means we have a wealth of words from which to choose. We do not have the benefit of rigid rules that simplify writing, but we do have the advantage of a highly adaptable vehicle for expression.
In the end, the challenge is daunting, the path meandering, and the hours long and, at times, tedious, but we would not have it any other way.
Works Cited
Ashari, Nooshan and Stephen Krashen. “Confronting linguistic racism: As our world grows more globalized, our acceptance of others—and their accents—is paramount.” USC Rossiter School of Education. December 4, 2023.
https://rossier.usc.edu/news-insights/news/confronting-linguistic-racism
Diana Drake, “Student’s Struggle to Speak English Leads to a Career as a Communicator.” Wharton Youth Program. Wharton University of Pennsylvania. April 12, 2019.
https://globalyouth.wharton.upenn.edu/articles/student-essays/struggle-speak-english-better-communicator/
Holinger, Paul C. “The Role of Language in Bias, Prejudice, and Violence: Language has the power to hurt, but it also has the power to heal.” Psychology Today. October 19, 2022.
Machado, Amanda. “How the U.S. taught me that Spanish was shameful,” March 26,2019, Think: Opinion, Analysis, Essays, NBC News Digital.
https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/how-u-s-taught-me-spanish-was-shameful-ncna986746
Alberto Nardelli, “Most Europeans can speak multiple languages. UK and Ireland not so much,” The Guardian, September 26,2014 www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2014/sep/26/europeans-multiple-languages-uk-ireland
Sarah Vicol, “The Politics of Bilingualism in the United States: A New Perspective on the Immigration Debate,” Stanford Undergraduate Research Journal, Vol. 18 No 1 (2019) Spring 2019
https://ojs.stanford.edu/ojs/index.php/surj/article/view/1266
