8.1: Introduction to Logical Fallacies -- Reading

The chapter titled, “Introduction to Rhetorical Appeals and Rhetorical Analysis”, you learned about the four types of rhetorical appeals (logos, pathos, ethos, and Kairos) that authors, speakers, and advertisers use to convey a message to an audience. The in-class activity and assignment asked you to identify the messages conveyed in both commercial advertisements and in the article, “Why the Destruction of a Black Neighborhood Matters to Me – and Should Matter to Everyone” by analyzing the rhetorical appeals utilized in each.

It is important to note that the use of logos, pathos, ethos, and Kairos does not automatically mean that the speaker’s argument is a good argument. Academic settings favor arguments that have a strong logical foundation and support. As students in college, you should be aware of how to ensure that your arguments are logically sound. For this, it is important to understand how to avoid flaws in the logic that you may use in an argument.

These flaws are called logical fallacies.

This chapter will focus on helping you identify logical fallacies within readings, speeches, and videos you may come across. Some speakers may use logical fallacies on purpose to sway people into believing their argument, even if it uses false logic. Some speakers may decide to fool their audience on purpose. This is why it is important to identify logical fallacies. This strengthens your critical reading toolbelt. Additionally, some of us may end up using logical fallacies without even realizing. Therefore, identifying logical fallacies in our own writing also helps us become better writers.

This chapter’s content focuses and builds on the following English 101/97 Student Learning Outcomes:

· Critical Thinking and Reading Outcome: Analyze texts for main ideas, supporting details, rhetorical strategy, and point of view

· Critical Thinking and Reading Outcome: Use interpretation to recognize the author’s meaning and strategies (e.g., induction, deduction) to develop ideas

· Critical Thinking and Reading Outcome: Use inference to draw conclusions from textual evidence and prior knowledge

· Critical Thinking and Reading Outcome: Evaluate texts (e.g., purpose, claims, evidence, objectivity, vocabulary)

What is a logical fallacy?

· A logical fallacy is an error within your reasoning that undermines the logic of your argument.

· The use of a logical fallacy makes your argument weak.

· Logical fallacies also open your argument to be attacked as inconsistent or false.

What are some logical fallacies?

There are many logical fallacies. Below is a short list put together by the Cleveland State University:

Logical Fallacies – A Short List

Generalization – A conclusion or judgment made from insufficient evidence. When one piece of evidence or information is used to make a broad conclusion or statement. Cherry picking – Picking and choosing only some of the available evidence in order to present only points most favorable to your point of view. If someone knowingly chooses certain (favorable) pieces of information and conveniently ignores less favorable information, then the argument is not supported by all of the available research. Straw Man – An oversimplification of an opposing perspective so that it becomes easy to attack. This is unfair and illogical because when one oversimplifies or inaccurately represents an argument and refutes that oversimplified version, one is not actually addressing the argument. Red Herring – Changing topics to avoid the point being discussed. This is an argument tactic in which one attempts to change the conversation, often by bringing up information that is not relevant to the claim or point being debated, in order to try to control the conversation. This can be a way to avoid having to address or answer the question at hand, and it harms the quality of an argument. Ad Hominem – It is a personal attack rather than a way of engaging with someone’s ideas. For example: “You are an idiot! That’s why you’re wrong!” This type of logical fallacy occurs when an arguer attacks or insults the person making opposing arguments instead of attacking the ideas, the logic, or the evidence within the opposing argument itself. It is a personal attack rather than a way of engaging with someone’s ideas. Ad Populum – A misused reference to popularly accepted values. For instance: “This is about freedom and righteousness, and if you believe in those things, then you should believe my argument.” This is an example of misused ethos – when the author is referencing the values that the audience cares about so that they think only about the values and not about the content of the argument (or, likely, the fact that there is little intellectual substance in what is being said). Either/or – – This is an argument that attempts to create a situation of absolutes with no options in between. For example: “Either we intervene, or we are basically no better than the Nazis.” This thinking is fallacious because it assumes that there are only two options, with nothing in between. Slippery Slope – This is a fallacy that assumes that one thing is going to have a series of consequences or effects–often leading to a worst-case scenario. For example: “If we let this happen, then that will happen and then the worst possible thing will happen.” It is false reasoning because 1) it’s impossible to predict the future, 2) it is illogical to suggest that one action will always necessarily lead to the worst possible outcome, and 3) it assumes a very specific chain of future events. This “if we let this happen there will be some horrible end” is misuse of cause/effect reasoning, often with some pathos (fear) sprinkled in.

“1st Edition: A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing (No Longer Updated)” by Melanie Gagich & Emilie Zickel, Cleveland State University, used under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Identifying Logical Fallacies:

Look at the advertisement below that promotes coffee consumption at school. Students are the intended audience for this ad and the message is clear: students should drink coffee. Ask yourself: how does this advertisement push its message to its intended audience?

“Fallacy Coffee Ad” by Student487, Wikipedia Commons, used under CC BY-SA 4.0.

The coffee advertisement above uses logical fallacies to make its argument that students need coffee. Below are some of the logical fallacies that it uses:

Slippery Slope:

“If you don’t drink coffee, you could drop out of college and end up homeless.” Remember that a slippery slope is a fallacy that suggests that one thing leads to another, and that thing leads to yet another thing.

Post Hoc:

“9/10 coffee drinks achieve a 3.8 GPA. If you drink coffee, you will achieve high grades.” While the post hoc fallacy was not in the short list provided above, you were probably able to tell that this claim sounded false when you saw the ad. A post hoc fallacy is a Latin phrase that means “after this, therefore because of this.” In other words, this logical fallacy suggests that one event causes another instead of a simple correlation existing between the two.

The more practice that you have in identifying logical fallacies, the easier it will be for you to identify them in the real world.