20.6: Evaluating Sources

How do we know when information is “credible”? How do we know we can trust it? All of us are evaluating “information sources” (pieces of information like websites, social media posts, and news stories) all the time. What are some of the things you do to judge whether a piece of information you find is credible (in other words, how do you know whether you can trust it)?  This is a tough question in today’s world where so much information is coming in, and it is hard to determine whether it is credible.

Credibility Test 1: The CRAAP Test

Reading actively requires that you critique a source as you engage with its ideas. One popular method for critiquing sources in academic research is the CRAAP Test, developed by the Meriam Library at California State University, Chico. The test, which can be found below, focuses on five important criteria to consider when evaluating a source’s quality. By responding to each of the questions posed by the test, you can determine whether a source is credible and worthy of incorporating into your research.

Currency: Timeliness of the information	When was the information published or posted? Has the information been revised or updated? Does your topic require current information, or will older sources work as well? Are the links, if present, functional?
Relevance: Importance of the information to your needs	Does the information relate to your topic or answer your research question? Who is the intended audience? Is the information at an appropriate level (i.e. not too elementary or advanced for your needs)? Have you looked at a variety of sources before determining this is the one you will use? Would you be comfortable citing this source in your research paper?
Authority: Source of the information	Who is the author/publisher/source/sponsor? What are the author’s credentials or organizational affiliations? Is the author qualified to write on the topic? Is there contact information, such as a publisher or email address? Does the URL reveal anything about the author or source? Examples: .com .edu .gov .org .net
Accuracy: Reliability, truthfulness, and correctness of the information	Where does the information come from? Is the information supported by evidence? Has the information been reviewed or refereed? Can you verify any of the information in another source or from personal knowledge? Does the language or tone seem unbiased and free of emotion? Are there spelling, grammar, or typographical errors?
Purpose: Reason the information exists	What is the purpose of the information? Is it to inform, teach, sell, entertain, or persuade? Do the authors/sponsors make their intentions or purpose clear? Is the information fact, opinion or propaganda? Does the point of view appear objective and impartial? Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional or personal biases?

Credibility Test 2: The SIFT Test

We used to use different tests to determine credibility by looking at the source itself, but one can no longer just look at a source and determine that as easily as we once could. Now, especially online, we need to navigate away from the source itself to determine if it is reliable.  Mike Caufield, a research scientist at the University of Washington’s Center for an informed Public, came up with the SIFT method to help us determine the credibility of sources.

Caufield’s method calls for us to take a bit of time to look beyond the source itself to check it.

Stop: First, stop and evaluate what you already know about the source.  If the source is one that you recognized and trust then you probably do not need to go farther.  However, if you do not know the source, then you will need to move to the investigate step to find out if it can be trusted.

Investigate: Investigate the source.  Do a quick Google search to check the author or the organization presenting the information. It will often tell you if they are known for presenting good information or misinformation.

Find: Find better sources.  If the source seems unreliable after you investigate it, then more research is needed.  Look for other sources who may be saying the same thing.  If they are, you can probably trust your source. If other sources are not saying the same thing, then you probably cannot trust the source’s information.

Trace: Trace the information to its original source if you are still unsure about the trustworthiness and reliability of the information.  This is useful for information that may be used out of context to give you the full picture of the situation where it originated.

Pretend you are interested in learning more about how climate change policies impact the economy. 

Exercise 20.6a: Assessing Credibility using SIFT 

1.  The first step in deciding the credibility of a source is to get more information about the publication and author. For these citations, identify the author and the publication. Then do a quick Google search to see how other sources like Wikipedia describe the author and publication. 

Thomas, Valerie. "How the US Cut Climate-Changing Emissions While Its Economy More than Doubled." The Conversation US, 6 Nov. 2025, theconversation.com/how-the-us-cut-climate-changing-emissions-while-itshttps://www.wsj.com/opinion/green-electricity-costs-a-bundle-wind-solar-data-analysis-power-prices-259344f4?reflink=desktopwebshare_permalink.economy-more-than-doubled-268763.

   a. Author:

   b. Publication:

   c. How do other sources describe the author/publication?

 

Lomborg, Bjorn. "Green Electricity Costs a Bundle." Wall Street Journal, 1 Jan. 2025, www.wsj.com/opinion/green-electricity-costs-a-bundle-wind-solar-datahttps://www.wsj.com/opinion/green-electricity-costs-a-bundle-wind-solar-data-analysis-power-prices-259344f4?reflink=desktopwebshare_permalinkanalysis-power-prices-259344f4?reflink=desktopwebshare_permalink. a. Author:

    b. Publication

    c. How do other sources describe the author/publication?

 

2. The following websites are both for non-profit organizations that work in the area of climate change. Do a Google search to see how other sources describe these groups. Are these groups biased? Justify your answer. 

 

   a. The Sierra Club: www.sierraclub.org

   b. The Heartland Institute: www.heartland.org

 

Answer/Justification:

3.       You want to include information about how clean energy affects employment. Which source would be more authoritative? Why?

    a. employment statistics from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics website

    b. information from a renewable energy company’s website

4.       Which source would be more relevant in verifying the claim that moving to renewable energy could save the economy trillions of dollars when compared to fossil fuel use. Why?

    a. an opinion piece from 2000 published in The New York Times

    b.a peer-reviewed article that was recently published in Oxford Open Economics

 

Evaluating Rhetorical Strategy in Sources

As a reader and researcher, it is your job to critique the arguments you encounter to determine whether a source is an appropriate fit for your research. As you work with a source, pay attention to the author’s argumentation. While you may not fully delve into rhetorical strategy until your English 102 class, it is never too early to engage critically with a text. As a start, you might look for examples of rhetorical appeals like logos, ethos, and pathos within the source material. Again, these rhetorical appeals will take center stage in 102, but you can find a brief overview below.

Logos

Definition: Appeal to reason

Function: Uses facts to support a claim

Pathos

Definition: Appeal to emotion

Function: Invokes credible authority figures to support a claim

Ethos

Definition: Appeal to authority

Function: Plays to audience's emotions to support a claim

Trust Me: Identifying Ethos

Just as you incorporate outside sources to bolster your credibility as an author, scholars work to convince audiences of their own credibility by presenting their work as objectively as possible, highlighting their credentials and expertise, and calibrating their argument to reach a particular audience. This delicate balancing act constitutes the rhetorical appeal of ethos, so named after the Greek word for “character”. As you read through your various sources, make note of how each author presents themselves and their work and pay particular attention to elements like word choice, which offer clues about the target audience to which an author is appealing. Note also that the choices you make during the writing process contribute directly to your own ethos: when you present ideas in an essay, you present yourself as an expert on a given topic.

To establish and maintain your own ethos, you should consider a few key points:

1. A credible writer knows and follows the conventions of their field—in college writing, you will typically be expected to format your work according to APA or MLA style. Deviating from these required conventions immediately leads readers to question your authority.
2. A credible writer interacts with and builds upon the ideas of others in making their own arguments, but they do not allow these ideas to overshadow their own. Overusing sources may lead readers to question your knowledge of the topic you are examining.
3. A credible writer familiarizes themselves with the context of a topic before fully developing their own argument. To be credible, you need to be aware of the conversation you are entering into, and you should seek to fully understand the positions of the various voices in this conversation so that you can engage with these positions in an informed, reasonable manner.
4. A credible writer comes to their work with a keen awareness of their own potential biases and blind spots—instead of feigning objectivity, they acknowledge the limitations of their work and attempt to counter these limitations with solid research and logical argumentation

Ethos in Action If my years as an educator have taught me anything, it’s that the best defense against procrastination is deliberate planning.” Thirteen board-certified doctors agree: this hair loss cream works!” “Our family has served drivers in this community for over 90 years, so you know you’re in good hands when you choose Hank’s Auto.”

Just the Facts: Identifying Logos

The most cut-and-dry of the rhetorical appeals, logos relies on pure fact and reason to persuade an audience. When an author incorporates hard data like facts and statistics and connects the dots between ideas using specific credible evidence, they are using logos.

Logos in Action "The data is perfectly clear: this investment has consistently turned a profit year-overyear, even in spite of market declines in other areas." "Ladies and gentlemen of the jury: we have not only the fingerprints, the lack of an alibi, a clear motive, and an expressed desire to commit the robbery… We also have video of the suspect breaking in. The case could not be more open and shut." "More than one hundred peer-reviewed studies have been conducted over the past decade, and none of them suggests that this is an effective treatment for hair loss."

Once More, With Feeling: Identifying Pathos

An appeal best used in moderation, pathos is deployed to guide readers toward a particular emotional response (anger, sadness, shame, etc.). One of the most common uses of pathos in political rhetoric is the incitement of fear toward a particular end—think of an Adolf Hitler speech in the years leading up to the Holocaust. Pathos can be extremely effective as a rhetorical strategy, but it is easy to go overboard. Too much pathos can diminish an author’s credibility as it often reveals an overt bias that impedes logical reasoning. As you engage with your sources, consider how authors play on specific emotions and, more importantly, consider to what end these emotions are invoked. Again, word choice can provide helpful clues about an author’s intent: loaded terminology (the difference between “undocumented persons” and “illegal aliens,” for instance) can color readers’ understanding of a topic and evoke specific emotions related to the terms in question.

Pathos in Action "They’ve worked against everything we’ve worked so hard to build, and they don’t care who gets hurt in the process. Make no mistake, they’re the enemy, and they won’t stop until we’re all destroyed." "Don’t be the last person on the block to have their lawn treated – you don’t want to be the laughing stock of your community!" "If you quit this job, you’ll be letting down everyone who sacrificed to get you to this point!”

See this video for more help understanding the rhetorical appeals with examples.

 

Exercise 20.6b: Recognizing Rhetorical Appeals

Read each passage and determine whether the author is using logos, ethos, pathos, or some combination of the three in making their argument.

1. "My three decades of experience in public service, my tireless commitment to the people of this community, and my willingness to reach across the aisle and cooperate with the opposition, make me the ideal candidate for your mayor."
2. "Where would we be without this tradition? Ever since our forefathers landed at Plymouth Rock, we’ve celebrated Thanksgiving without fail, making more than cherished recipes. We’ve made memories."
3. "The data is perfectly clear: this investment has consistently turned a profit year-over-year, even in spite of market declines in other areas."
4. "Doctors all over the world recommend this type of treatment."