7.9: Review of Major Points

To defend yourself against the bombardment of propaganda, con games, political hype, and sales pitches, you should demand good reasons before you act and before you change your beliefs. This is easier said than done. One problem is to get a reason, any reason. A second problem is to determine whether an offered reason is any good. In this chapter, we examined deceptive techniques that rely on lying, exaggerating, and selectively withholding information. We also considered how we can be manipulated even when all the relevant information is available to us; the problem in this case is in how that information is presented. Finally, we examined loaded language, rhetorical devices, and the difference between facts and values. Loaded language isn't all bad; it can be effectively used to enliven dull discourse. But using it to slant a supposedly objective description is a technique of deception.

The chapter presented three more principles of logical reasoning: (1) Suspend judgment rather than leap to a conclusion with insufficient evidence, (2) be alert to loaded language, and (3) sort out the facts from the values. We aren't yet done exploring the means of deception. Almost every chapter to follow will add to what we've already discussed.