7.1: Western European Music History

Music history focusing on Western European traditions will be, at a minimum, a two-course sequence at the collegiate level that provides primarily an overview of historical eras in Western European music history. Many programs also include a World Music course or embed ethnomusicology in an existing course. Truly, ALL music is “world” music! Musical history really dates back through the Ancient times. There is strong evidence that music existed well back to the earliest times of man. Although there is no
existing documentation, music scholars are certain that music practice started with the primitive peoples, continued through the ancient civilized people such as the Chinese, Indian and Japanese, and then through the development of Egyptian, Hebrew, and Greeks. The music of these early non-western people was functional to daily life and largely improvisatory.

Those in positions of power have long believed (and influenced generations that followed) that it is Western European culture that moved music into an independent art form. While experts in the profession are working to decolonize the subject matter, what follows is the “Cliff Notes” version (otherwise known as the tip of the iceberg) of the Western European tradition has long been the focus of historical study in music in this country. Please understand that there are varied dates given for the eras, but these are generally a range of dates in which the music had similar characteristics.

The Middle Ages or Medieval (476–1450)

The Middle Ages extended from the time of the fall of the Roman Empire until the beginning of the Renaissance. The first half, until about the year 1000, is frequently referred to as the Dark Ages, while 1000–1450 is referred to as the late Middle Ages.

In the nearly 1,000 years of the Middle Ages, you might say change was slow. The church was very powerful and all education was centered in the church to the extent that only clergy were educated. Music consisted primarily of a single melodic line sung with no accompaniment. This is often referred to as “chant.” Our current system of notation had not yet been developed and a simple four-line staff, with no clef, time signature, or key signature was used.

When harmony was brought in around 850, it was one of the most important developments in Western music. It was called polyphony, which was a combination of two or more simultaneous melodic lines. They were mostly a parallel line to the melody and then later some of the parts started to move faster. Much of the music was sacred, being composed for Catholic Mass and performed by priests and monks. Notation was beginning to be developed around the year 1200, but unless you were clergy you were probably illiterate anyway. This early notation generally included a simple four-line staff, with no clef, time signature, or key signature.

There was some secular (non-church) music during this period as well. This was the music of the common people and was their popular music used for entertainment. It consisted of songs and dances that common people performed and enjoyed as part of their daily lives. It was mostly poetry set to music that included an individual vocal line with an improvised instrumental accompaniment.

Instrumental music started to emerge in the 14th century as well. They played a supporting role in vocal music, doubling or accompanying singers. Instrumental arrangements of vocal music were becoming increasingly popular. However, instruments found their most significant role in dance music, where rhythm was a prime consideration. They had the same general categories of instruments as we do today; strings, woodwinds, brass, percussion, and keyboard. However, they were much more limited in range and volume
than modern instruments.

Key stylistic features: a cappella, monophonic (one sound/melodic line), lacks metrical feeling, beginnings of harmony, early polyphony

Key composers: Leonin, Perotin, Hildegard von Bingen, Machaut, numerous anonymous monks

Key terms: Gregorian chant, monophony, polyphony, organum, mass, motet, minstrels

Renaissance (1450–1600)

Often referred to as the “re-birth” and the age of enlightenment, this period brought a revived interest in the science and arts of ancient Greece and Rome. The Renaissance was a time of great learning and advancement. Culture moved away from the church toward a more secular society and a great belief in reason and science. This was a time in which exploration was rampant and there were discoveries and inventions such as gunpowder, the compass, and the printing press.

Musicians were now employed by the church or the government, or by the wealthy, such as royalty. There were many jobs for musicians. The rise of the middle class also led to additional performance venues and the rise of amateur musicians. Printed music books became common and affordable. Musical literacy spread across the population.

This was the grand time of the a capella (unaccompanied) style of singing. Vocal ranges, as they are currently known, were established—soprano, alto, tenor, and bass—but women were not yet allowed to sing in the church so treble parts were still sung by boys. Composers also began to work harder to represent the text in the music with word painting and began expanding the harmony through the use of fuller and thicker chords (using the 3rds and 6ths instead of 5ths and octaves). This period also saw the increased use of duple meter instead of the triple that was favored previously.

The religious compositions of the time were the mass and the motet. The composers used the polyphony to set the fixed portion of the Mass that was sung daily. Because of the frequency, this allowed composers great opportunities for writing and performing music. The motet was a shorter work with a single line of Latin text set to music for three or more voices.

The madrigal and chanson were secular types of vocal music that were popular during this time. They were poetry in the common language set to music and written for two or more voices. They were generally a capella but could be accompanied by instruments.

This was also a time that saw the emergence of solo instrumental music, particularly for the lute and keyboard instruments. And instrumental dance music exploded in popularity. Printed dance music (often madrigals and chansons without words) became readily available but instruments were unspecified by composers. Instrumental music for the church also began to be composed late in the period particularly in Italy. Most famous would be St Mark’s Cathedral and the brass music of Gabrieli.

Stylistic features: polyphony (many voices doing something equally important/ interesting at the same time) becomes popular, usually major or minor, pleasing harmonies—“clashes” or close harmonies like 2nds and 7ths are avoided, increasing attention paid to text

Key composers: Dufay, Josquin des Prez, Palestrina, Monteverdi, Gabrieli

Terms: a capella, word painting, madrigal, chanson, mass, motet

Baroque (1600–1750)

The Baroque era was a time of great change in politics, science, and the arts. It was a time of religious wars between the Catholics and Protestants and a time of exploration. There was a rise of the middle class, however, monarchies were still prominent and the aristocracy and churches were major patrons of the arts. Music was everywhere, being made in the universities, churches, and homes.

During the Baroque era, there was a shift in interest from large polyphonic works towards monody (solo line with instrumental accompaniment) that led to a profound interest in instrumental music. The increased interest and the creation of high-quality instruments led quickly to the development of the virtuoso musician that demonstrated technique that had never been seen or heard before. New forms of music were developed called the sonata, the concerto, and the suites. Some famous pieces include Vivaldi’s The Four Seasons (a group of four violin concertos), Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos, and Handel’s Water Music. Organ music for the church also exploded with the two most common forms being the chorale prelude and the fugue. J. S. Bach composed extensively for the keyboard instruments.

Improvisation continued to be an important aspect of instrumental performance. Like the architectural style of the day, the music was very ornate with lots of fast runs of notes and motor rhythms. During this time, you also heard a lot of terraced dynamics (which meant either loud or soft with no gradual change in between).

Composers sought to free themselves from the complexities of the Renaissance counterpoint. Not only did this discovery lead to the flourishing of solo instrumental music, but also led to the invention of opera and the formation of small orchestras. The operas were large scale music dramas that combined poetry, acting, scenery, and costumes with singing and instrumental music. They included solo arias, recitatives, and choruses accompanied by harpsichord and small orchestra. Baroque composers of opera included
Monteverdi, Purcell, and Handel.

With the rise of the Lutheran church in Germany also came a new addition to the repertoire that was called the sacred cantata. These were large multi-movement works that included solo arias, recitatives, and choruses all with orchestral accompaniment. They were usually unified through the use of a chorale. J. S. Bach was a prolific composer of this genre. A larger form similar to the cantata was the oratorio. It is a large-scale dramatic genre with a religious text performed by solo voices, chorus and orchestra that does
not include staging or costumes. One of the most famous oratorios is The Messiah by G. F. Handel.

The notation used for the solo lines was the same as we used today. However, musicians of the time were very familiar with harmonies being used and so composers did not fully write out chords in the accompaniment. Instead the composer used a short-hand (figured bass) with the bass note and a number to indicate the chord. The performing musicians would fill in the rest. This use of chords also led to major-minor tonalities and the common chord progressions we still use today. This was also a time when
expressive qualities were becoming more important to the music as well through the use of dissonance and basic dynamics (forte/piano).

Stylistic features: highly ornamented, soloistic and virtuosic performance, opera and instrumental music became popular, productions were becoming large scale

Key composers: Monteverdi, J. S. Bach, Handel, Vivaldi, Scarlatti, Purcell, Corelli

Terms: monody, figured-bass, opera, oratorio, cantata, chorale, aria, recitative, fugue

Classical (1750–1825)

The “Classical” period was a time that sought to re-discover classical antiquity, especially the ancient Greek and Roman traditions and virtues. This term was also used to imply a model of excellence and focused on order and objectivity. It was a time of strong aristocracies in Europe as well as the American and French Revolutions. There were great advances in science and mass production was made possible through the Industrial Revolution. Many music scholars refer to “Classical” as more of a style than a period.

Composers viewed this time as a period of musical experimentation and discovery. They expanded the use of the major-minor system and perfected the large-scale instrumental music forms. The melodies were lyrical, used symmetrical four-bar phrases and had clear cadences. There was great use of repetition with harmonies that supported the melody and are firmly rooted in the key. Strong rhythms, steady tempo, and basic meters are characteristic as well. Several forms were developed during this time, like sonata form (exposition, development, recapitulation), theme and variations (which is just like it sounds), and concerto form (often with a double exposition—one for the accompaniment instrument(s) and one for the soloist). Many composers were also influenced by folk music.

Composers were often employed by the aristocracy or churches and had to produce a lot of music, quickly, for social events and special occasions. This patronage system provided composers with the economic security within which they could experiment musically. Through the course of this time period music began to transition from the palace to the public concert hall. There was a great eagerness from these public concerts for new music as well. However, music is still primarily for the upper class and you must have
attended a live performance in order to be exposed to it.

The era was the pinnacle for chamber music. These pieces were composed for groups of two to ten players with every player on their own part. There were duos, trios, quintets, octets, serenades, and divertimentos, however, the string quartet was the most important and prolific of the time. Haydn’s (68) quartets were characteristic and are considered to be some of the best. His pieces utilized dense textures and great use of folk music elements.

Instrumental music continued to be developed and grow in importance, especially by Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven’s earlier works. The large-scale symphony was developed in this time and the orchestra, as we know it today, was established with the four families of instruments (strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion). However, the orchestra only tended to have 35-40 performers making it still more appropriate for small venues. The modern piano was developed which also led to greater soloistic/virtuosic music
forms including the concerto (solo instrument and orchestra; mostly violin or piano) and sonata (a solo instrument or a duo such as violin and piano). As the period came to a close the works of Beethoven, particularly, led to the transition to the Romantic period through expanded forms, larger orchestras, and profound musical intensity.

Large-scale choral music such as the mass, requiem, and oratorio continued to be developed. They were starting to be performed in the concert hall as much as in the churches. Opera was taken to new heights through opera buffa (Italian comic opera), opera seria (Italian serious opera), and others that were sung in the vernacular language (common language of the people). Opera during this period was the most important form of entertainment and reached a wide public audience. Mozart’s operas are considered to be some of the greatest.

Stylistic features: Music of the Classical era is usually marked by even, symmetrical phrases (4 + 4 = 8). Music was generally major and minor (diatonic) with lots of dance rhythms. Development of larger form styles, limited improvisation, and emotional restraint.

Key composers: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert

Terms: symphony, diatonic, homophonic, sonata, concerto

Romantic (1825–1900)

The Romantics felt as though bigger was better. Everything was expanding in the music of this time. This was a time of subjectivity in contrast with the order and objectivity of the Classical period. Following the French Revolution, there was a rise of the middle class. The arts turned to more creative and exotic topics. Emotional expression was a prime motivation. Artists in every genre challenged the boundaries of tradition. Due to the Industrial Revolution, instruments were of better quality and more affordable than ever before. There were greater opportunities to study music as conservatories were established across Europe and the United States.

Music during this period was expansive with lyrical, appealing melodies and greater use of chromaticism than ever before. Harmony was emotional and expressive using more dissonance. Rhythmic diversity with tempo fluctuations (rubato) was common. The music was being heard by more middle-class patrons and secular music was dominating the style. As instrument quality improved and the performer’s virtuosity developed, composers seized the opportunity to display their musical talents. Nationalism (using folk songs and dances of their native lands) became widespread.

As orchestra music moved from the palace and church to the concert hall, the ensemble increased in size. The improvement to instrument quality also led to the addition of new instruments to the orchestra including the tuba, trombone, English horn, harp, piccolo, contrabassoon, and valved brass. These changes allowed the composers greater freedom to explore tone, color, and dynamics. The growing ensemble and increased complexity of the music also led to the addition of the conductor in front of the ensemble since it was no longer possible to lead from the keyboard. The instrumental forms of music grew in size. The symphony, the most important instrumental form of the period, grew into a monumental work that could last 40-90 minutes. The music was often programmatic (instrumental music that tells a story). One of the most famous examples is Symphonie Fantastique by Hector Berlioz.

The piano became a widely popular solo instrument (as well as accompaniment) and began to appear in middle class homes everywhere. It was especially popular with amateurs due to the ability to play melody and harmony at the same time. Through the improvements to the structure and strings of the piano, it became a more powerful and reliable instrument. Many great composers who were also great pianists emerged during this time including Chopin, Liszt, and Schumann.

This era brought with it the rise of instrumental virtuosity. Paganini could play violin like nobody’s business and was pretty much the Elvis of his time. Composers began to recognize the virtuosity of the performers and to display that in new compositions. Many concertos were written through this time by all of the composers.

The art song or lied was a product of the Romantic period and a vehicle for personal expression. They were short, solo songs with piano accompaniment in German. Some composers wrote sets that were unified by some common thread (song cycle). Lieder were appropriate for amateurs as well as professional musicians. Among the great masters were Brahms, Schubert, and Schumann.

Large-scale choral music continued to be composed in the traditional forms (oratorio, mass, requiem). These became very popular with the middle class who were forming amateur choral groups across Europe and the U.S. These choral groups were a growing social and artistic outlet for the communities. Brahms’ German Requiem is considered a masterwork of the era.

Operas, like the other musical forms, grew to massive proportions including story lines, length, costumes, choreography, staging, virtuosic singing and wide vocal ranges. There were multiple categories of opera including grand opera (large historical dramas with grandiose effects), opera comique (French comic opera with spoken dialogue), singspiel (German opera with light, comic stories), music drama (more serious German works such as operas of Wagner), opera seria (Italian serious opera), and opera buffa (Italian
comic opera). They continued to be a hugely popular form of entertainment for the middle class.

Stylistic features: Expansive, great use of crescendo and decrescendo—the ultimate “sweeping” Romantic gesture; rubato (a bit of freedom or give-and-take with the rhythm), expanded harmonies and chromaticism, very expressive, increased virtuosity.

Key composers: Beethoven, Schumann, Schubert, Chopin, Brahms, Berlioz, Verdi, Tchaikovsky, Mahler,
Wagner, Liszt

Terms: rubato, chromaticism, Programmatic, Nationalism, Lied, opera

Contemporary (1900–present)

There hasn’t been enough history to know when this era ends or ended or even to give it a proper name, for that matter. The name of the game for this time period is diversity. Think of all the different music styles you can name just in the realm of rock, country and jazz; this list is almost endless. Most importantly, in the past hundred years, developments in recording and the endless choices we have in what we listen to on our personal devices has greatly changed the music world.

In the 1900’s, composers began to break all the “rules” set up by composers in previous generations and there was an intentional rebellion against Romanticism. The early twentieth century art music introduced Neoclassicism (a return to classical traditions with twentieth century harmony and melody) and Expressionism (a reaction to Impressionism). There was a new rhythmic complexity including polymeter (more than one meter) and polyrhythm (simultaneous use of several rhythmic patterns). Symmetrical melody was abandoned for a new driving melody, frequently employing wide leaps and dissonance.

Harmony changed more drastically than anything else with additions of extended chords and dissonant polychords. Tonality abandoned the traditional major-minor traditions for new ways of organizing sounds including polytonality (multiple simultaneous tonalities), atonality (no clear tonality), and twelve-tone music (incorporation of all 12 chromatic tones with equal importance). The dense orchestrations of the Romantic also gave way to thinner sounds and smaller ensembles with greater emphasis on woodwinds, brass, and especially percussion.

Stylistic features: dissonant, simplistic and abstract, new harmonic and melodic practices, return of balance and objectivity, new importance to rhythm

Composers: Stravinsky, Ives, Bartok, Schoenberg, Copland, Webern, Bartok, Ives

Terms: dissonance, polychords, polyrhythm, polytonality, 12-tone, Neo-classic