5.10: Language Toolkit
- Page ID
- 123881
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Language for Concession/Counterargument
When you write a concession or counterargument, you need to clearly show whose perspective you are talking about, and signal to your reader when you are switching back and forth from one perspective to another. Table 5.10.1 provides some useful language for these tasks. Note: this assumes you are writing an entire paragraph addressing another perspective, but you can also use this concept and this language in smaller bits.
Part of the paragraph | What to write | Possible language | |
---|---|---|---|
Part 1 |
Topic sentence/point that names the other perspective: 1+ sentences |
Start with connecting words and, if logical, reporting words to make clear that you are switching to a perspective that is not your own opinion. State
|
|
Part 2 |
Evidence/specific information that supports the other perspective: 2+ sentences |
Give evidence/specifics of this other perspective:
|
|
Part 3 |
Response that defends and explains your position: 2+ sentences |
Start with connecting words and, if logical, reporting words to make clear that we are now back to your own position, explain why the other perspective
or otherwise respond in a way that shows your position is still stronger. |
|
Naming and Refuting Logical Fallacies
Table 5.10.2 provides language for naming, explaining, and refuting common logical fallacies.
Part of your sentence | suggested language patterns |
---|---|
Sentence 1: source of the fallacy |
|
special reporting verb phrase |
|
paraphrase/summary of their argument |
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Sentence 2: transition to your rebuttal |
|
rename the source (opponent) |
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special verb |
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name the fallacy/error |
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Sentence 3: explain the error |
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Argumentation terms
These are key academic words that are helpful for explaining the structure of arguments and pointing out flaws in reasoning. Keywords are in bold; examples are italicized.
Disagreement terms
Table 5.10.3 contains words we use to name or describe an area of disagreement, or which position someone is taking in the disagreement:
Term and part of speech | Definition(s) and derivative forms | Examples |
---|---|---|
perspective (count noun) |
position, point of view, or attitude toward something; the way someone thinks about an idea, problem, or controversy. Sometimes we use this word to indicate that the person's experience or identity helps or causes them to see the situation in a certain way. |
|
controversial (adj.) |
causing a debate of strong opinions on different sides; controversy (count or non-count noun) |
|
proponent (count noun) |
someone who supports an idea, plan, or another person; advocate [antonym of opponent]; propose (transitive verb) |
|
opponent (count noun) |
someone who is against an idea, plan, or another person, and is trying to stop them or win against them [antonym of proponent]; oppose (transitive verb); opposition (non-count noun) |
|
Logical relationship terms
Table 5.10.4 contains words we use to name how two or more events or facts are related to each other:
Term and part of speech | Definition(s) and derivative forms | Examples |
---|---|---|
cause (usually count but sometimes non-count noun) |
an action or event that is the reason for another action or event; cause (transitive verb); causal (adj.); causation (non-count noun) We use causation to emphasize that one event or situation really did cause another event in a way we can prove.- |
|
consistent (adj.) |
matching, making a predictable pattern, making sense together; inconsistent (adj.); consistency/inconsistency (count or non-count noun); consistently/inconsistently (adv.) |
|
correlation (count or non-count noun) |
two events, actions, or amounts being connected or happening at the same time; correlated (adj.) |
|
factor (count noun) |
one part of a cause with more than one part; one event or condition that, along with other events or conditions, leads to an effect |
|
random (adj.) |
not according to any pattern or set of rules; unpredictable |
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Reasoning terms
Table 5.10.5 contains words we use to name how a person made a decision or why they think something:
Term and part of speech | Definition(s) and derivative forms | Examples |
---|---|---|
arbitrary (adj.) |
chosen without a particular reason or pattern; similar to random, but arbitrary is more about a person making a decision without following a consistent or fair rule, so it sometimes has a connotation of “unfair” when used to describe actions of people in power; arbitrarily (adv.) |
|
assumption (count noun) |
a guess; an idea that someone believes even though they may not have all the information or evidence that it is true; assume (transitive verb) |
|
findings (count noun, usually plural) |
the information or answers someone finds from doing research |
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Evaluation terms
Table 5.10.6 contains words we use to evaluate someone's decision or explain whether we should believe them:
Term and part of speech | Definition(s) and derivative forms | Examples |
---|---|---|
contradiction (count noun) |
two statements or actions by the same person that go against each other or can’t both be true; contradict (transitive verb); contradictory (adj.) |
|
credibility (non-count noun) |
deserving to be believed and trusted; credible (adj.) |
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valid (adj.) |
reasonable, sensible, acceptable, logical; validity (non-count noun) |
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Argumentation terms review
Let's try out using these terms.
Read each sentence. In each sentence, a word has been replaced by the letter "X". Decide which of the three choices at the end would be the best replacement for "X". Use the meaning and the grammar pattern to help you decide.
- The union was negotiating for a pay raise X with the cost of living for the region. (opponent/consistent/random)
- Opponents of a boycott raised a X point, that the boycott might actually hurt the workers it was meant to help. (valid/findings/factor)
- After the scientists recorded the amount of pesticides in the runoff from the cotton fields, they presented their X at an environmental health conference. (credibility/random/findings)
- The decision to strike was X ; some of the workers were convinced it was the only path forward, but others were afraid to lose their jobs or even face retaliation. (contradiction/controversial/correlation)
- The lack of economic opportunities in rural areas is one X driving many women to move to cities in search of factory jobs. (factor/arbitrary/assume)
- Research on decision-making shows that when we feel a X between our behavior and our values, such as when we are shopping for unethically-made products, we feel very uncomfortable, and usually change our values to match our behavior. (consistent/credibility/contradiction)
For suggested answers, see 5.12: Answer Key - Analyzing Arguments Answer Key
Licenses and attributions
CC Licensed Content: Original
Authored by Gabriel Winer, Berkeley City College. License: CC BY NC.