4.10: Language Toolkit

Reporting Verbs

Also see 4.7: Introducing and Explaining Evidence for a list of reporting words organized by meaning.

Different reporting words have special meanings that communicate what type of idea the source said and how it is related to other ideas. If we read that someone "argues...," we know that an opinion is coming. If we read that someone "reports...," we are ready for a fact. If we read that someone "acknowledges...," we are ready for a concession.

Reporting word grammar patterns

Different reporting words also follow different grammar patterns. This resource divides them into five pattern types:

• verb + a complete idea
• verb + a noun phrase or certain similar structures
• verb + either of the above patterns
• verb + special collocations (certain words that always go with them)
• according to (this one is so important, it gets its own category)

Verb + complete idea

Many reporting words follow the first pattern: verb + that + subject + verb + complement (if any). In other words, you must use a noun clause to report the complete idea that the source said.

• He asserts that bilingualism is valuable.
• She warns that this law will have terrible consequences.

With some reporting verbs, you can choose whether to use "that" after the verb. If “that” is in parentheses in the first column of Table 4.10.1, then you can leave it out. (For example, you can say: "Gonzalez says that bilingualism is gold" or you can say: Gonzalez says bilingualism is gold.") Using “that” when it is optional usually makes your sentence sound more formal. In Table 4.10.1, if “that” is not in parentheses, you should include it to follow academic writing customs.

You can use any of the expressions listed here to report either indirect or direct quotations. To report a direct quote, omit that. You can put the reporting word before the quotation, embedded after the subject of the first sentence in the quotation, or after the quotation. Notice the patterns for capital letters and commas.

Sometimes you will also see another punctuation pattern with a colon (:) after the reporting expression. You can use this when the introduction phrase is an independent clause with a subject and verb (and possibly object). 

• Nguyen proposes, "The city should adopt harm reduction approaches."
• Nguyen proposes a different idea: "The city should adopt harm reduction approaches."

In the second sentence, there is an independent clause ("Nguyen proposes a different idea") so you can introduce the quotation with just a colon.

Table 4.10.1 provides reporting words that use the verb + complete idea pattern.

Table 4.10.1: Reporting words that come before a complete idea

reporting word(s)	special meaning (flavor of “says”)	example
agrees (that) + SVC	expresses the same opinion as someone else	Le agrees with Smith that drugs should be decriminalized.
argues that + SVC	states that something is true, should be done, etc.	Le argues that drugs should be decriminalized.
asserts (that) + SVC	states firmly that something is true	Le asserts that drugs should be decriminalized.
believes (that) + SVC	is sure something is true (be careful with this one, because it’s more a statement of what the author thinks than what they say, and we can’t read their minds, only their words.)	Le believes that drugs should be decriminalized.
cautions that + SVC	warns, tells about something bad that might happen	Le cautions that if drugs are not decriminalized, more violence will result.
claims (that) + SVC	states that something is true, especially if there is little proof, if it is a new idea, or if there is controversy – if you use “claims” to report someone else’s opinion, you probably doubt that they are right	Opponents claim that drug use will increase with decriminalization.
concludes that + SVC	decides that something is true after considering all the information	Le concludes that despite the risks, decriminalization of drugs is the best public health policy.
insists (that) + SVC	says firmly and often that something is true, especially when other people think it may not be true	Le insists that decriminalization of drugs will not result in rampant abuse.
notes that + SVC	notices or pays careful attention to something (often something that is important but not the main idea)	Le notes that the end of Prohibition did not result in greater alcohol abuse.
reports that + SVC	gives information about events, facts, or what someone else said	Le reports that in Portugal, where drug use is not criminalized, overdose rates are lower.
says (that) + SVC	expresses an idea, even in writing	Le says that many police departments are resistant to decriminalization.
speculates that + SVC	guesses about the possible causes or effects of something without knowing all the facts or details (often used to make a prediction about the future)	Le speculates that the initial transition period might be difficult.
states that + SVC	says, but more formal	Le states that decriminalization would benefit public health as well as reduce crime.
thinks (that) + SVC	has an opinion (not the most accurate because of the same reason above with “believes.”)	Le thinks that decriminalization is the best approach.

Verb + noun phrase, etc.

Some follow a different pattern: verb + NP (NP = noun phrase: noun and things attached to it, but not a complete sentence). Note: some of these can be followed by a noun clause that starts with “how,” or “whether” but not a noun clause beginning with “that,” and many can use a gerund (verb-ing) in place of the noun phrase.

• The author questions the motives behind English-only policies.
• She criticizes the new law.
• She asks whether he is prepared.
• She questions how well he prepared.

After the noun, to add more information, you can use connectors like “the fact that” or “with” or add an adj clause that wraps in another complete idea while not making the noun into the subject of a sentence:

• The author examines the flaws in a study that claims to link immunizations to autism.
• The author describes an experiment that tested methods of memorization.
• The author discusses the barriers for immigrants who cannot return to their prior professions.
• The author considers problems with the current infrastructure for utilizing solar energy.

Table 4.10.2 provides reporting words that attach a noun phrase (or a noun clause starting with "how" or "whether")

Table 4.10.2: Reporting Words that attach a noun phrase etc.

reporting word(s)	special meaning (flavor of “says”)	example
challenges + NP	argues against; tests; refuses to believe	Ruiz challenges the assumption that decriminalization encourages drug use.
considers + NP	thinks about carefully; discusses	Ruiz considers the health and legal aspects of decriminalization.
criticizes + NP	says why something is bad or wrong	Ruiz criticizes the policy of imprisoning nonviolent drug offenders.
describes + NP	says what something/someone is like by giving details, often specific or sensory details	Ruiz describes a clinic in Vancouver that provides clean needles to addicts.
discusses + NP	talks about the different parts/sides of something	Ruiz discusses the health and legal aspects of decriminalization.
examines + NP	studies closely; discusses	Ruiz examines the health and legal aspects of decriminalization.
investigates + NP	tries to find out more about something; discusses	Ruiz investigates the health and legal aspects of decriminalization.
refers to + NP	mentions or speaks about someone else or someone else’s text	Ruiz refers to a 2009 study of prison populations and drug convictions.
summarizes + NP	makes a short statement giving only the main information and not the details of a plan, event, report etc.	Ruiz summarizes the policies of six nations that have successfully decriminalized drugs.

Verb + complete idea or noun phrase, etc.

Some reporting words, such as those in Table 4.10.3, can follow more than one pattern (you can say verb + that + SVC OR verb + NP):

4.10.3: Reporting Words that attach either a complete idea or a noun phrase etc.

reporting word(s)	special meaning (flavor of “says”)	example
acknowledges (that) + SVC acknowledges + NP	admits or accepts that something is true, especially something that is unpleasant or that supports the opposite of the author’s argument	Kaur acknowledges that the new policy has some risks. Kaur acknowledges some risks of the new policy.
adds that + SVC adds + NP	says another thing or adds to an existing conversation/argument	Kaur adds that rehabilitation programs are underfunded. Kaur adds another benefit of decriminalization: there will be more money for rehabilitation programs.
admits (that) + SVC admits + NP	agrees unwillingly that something is true or that someone else is right about something	The authors admit that the study design isn’t perfect. The authors admit mistakes in the study design.
comments that + SVC comments on + NP	adds their opinion to a subject, idea, or plan	Kaur comments that a new therapy has been more successful in treating addiction. Kaur comments on a new therapy that has been more successful in treating addiction.
explains that + SVC explains + NP	tells about something in a way that makes it more clear	Kaur explains that the new therapy combines medical treatment with social support. Kaur explains a new therapy that combines medical treatment with social support.
indicates that + SVC indicates + NP	points to (this is often used with something besides a person as the subject: the study indicates… evidence indicates…)	Recent figures indicate that over half of prison inmates are locked up for drug offenses. Research indicates another possible solution to the problem.
maintains that + SVC maintains + NP	states firmly that something is true	Kaur maintains that decriminalization is the best strategy. Kaur maintains her position that decriminalization is the best strategy.
mentions that + SVC mentions + NP	says something that is not a main idea, sometimes while talking about another topic	Kaur mentions that prescription drug abuse is another related problem that cannot be ignored. Kaur mentions prescription drug abuse, another related problem that cannot be ignored.
points out that + SVC points out + NP	tells something that may not be obvious or that people might not know	Kim points out that crime has not increased in Colorado since marijuana was legalized. Kim points out stable crime rates in states where marijuana has been legalized.
proposes that + SVC proposes + NP (often verb-ing)	tells an idea of what people should do	Kim proposes that the government should combine regulation with treatment. Kim proposes a combination of regulation and treatment.
remembers that + SVC remembers + NP (often verb-ing)	remembers a story or event	Kim remembers that the guards seemed depressed. Kim remembers visiting a high-security prison for the first time.
recalls that + SVC recalls + NP (often verb-ing)	remembers or tells the story of an event	Kim recalls that the guards seemed depressed. Kim recalls meeting a guard who seemed depressed.
regrets that + SVC regrets + NP (often verb-ing)	wishes they hadn’t done something	The inmate regrets that she lost custody of her child. The inmate regrets losing custody of her child.
suggests (that) + SVC suggests + NP (often verb-ing)	tells an idea of what people should do OR (more common in academic texts) indicates, points to, or supports an idea that is not 100% sure	Many recent studies suggest that drug addicts are not deterred by the threat of arrest. Kim suggests that governments should decriminalize drug use. Kim suggests decriminalizing drug use.

Verb + special pattern

Some reporting words follow different patterns, such as those in Table 4.10.4:

Table 4.10.4: Reporting Words with Special Patterns

reporting word(s)	special meaning (flavor of “says”)	example
asks if/whether + SVC asks about + NP asks why + SVC	has a question about something; stronger than wonders but more neutral than questions	Kim asks if spending more on prevention would be more effective. Kim asks about the efficacy of prosecuting drug users. Kim asks why current policies continue, despite evidence that they are not working.
questions + NP questions if/whether + SVC	argues against; tests; refuses to believe; expresses doubts (note how this is different from the regular conversational meaning)	Kim questions current policies. Kim questions whether current policies are working.
recommends that + SVC, verb in base form recommends + NP (often verb-ing)	tells an idea of what people should do	Kim recommends that governments focus on treatment, not punishment. Kim recommends focusing on treatment, not punishment.
writes that + SVC writes about + NP (often verb-ing)	neutral, just like "says"	Kim writes that the effects of criminalizing drugs are worse than the effects of drug abuse. Kim writes about the effects of criminalization.
wonders if/whether + SVC wonders about + NP wonders why + SVC	has a question about something; guesses; thinks that something may be true	Kim wonders if spending more on prevention would be more effective. Kim wonders about the efficacy of prosecuting drug users. Kim wonders why current policies continue, despite evidence that they are not working.
according to + someone, SVC	this means they said, is totally neutral, and works as a prepositional phrase – do not also use another reporting expression for the same idea.	According to Kim, decriminalization is the first step toward solving the drug crisis.

According to

"According to" is not a verb, but a prepositional phrase. It means the same as "they said," is totally neutral, and is always followed by the person (or organization, or text, etc.) who said the thing.

• According to Kim, decriminalization is the first step toward solving the drug crisis.
• Decriminalization is the first step toward solving the drug crisis, according to Kim.
• Harm reduction, according to a recent meta-analysis of over 70 studies, is the best strategy.

Caution: do not also use a verb for the same job in the sentence.

• No: According to Kim, he argues that decriminalization is the first step toward solving the drug crisis.
• No: According to Kim argues that decriminalization is the first step toward solving the drug crisis.
• Yes: According to Kim, decriminalization is the first step toward solving the drug crisis.
• Yes: Kim argues that decriminalization is the first step toward solving the drug crisis.

Using ellipses and square brackets to make quotations more clear

Ellipses

Sometimes when you quote from another text, you want to make your quotation shorter and simpler by leaving out some words or phrases. You can do this by using ellipses, which are three periods with a space between them (. . .).

Let's look at an example:

“Notably, far too many of the children with the greatest potential to become good bilinguals – the children of immigrants – lose fluency in their parents’ language. It’s estimated that by the third generation, immigrants have completely lost fluency in their heritage languages” (Snow).

Some things in this sentence are repetitive, and you can leave them out. However, you must use ellipses to show that you have done this:

“Notably, far too many . . . children of immigrants . . . lose fluency in their parents’ language. . . . By the third generation, immigrants have completely lost fluency in their heritage languages” (Snow).

Be careful! When you use an ellipse, do not change the meaning of the original text. In the following quotation, too much text has been left out, and the meaning is not the same.

"Notably, . . . children with the greatest potential . . . have completely lost fluency in their heritage languages” (Snow).

Also, if you are using ellipses, check that your own sentence is grammatically correct and makes sense. In the following quotation, important grammar and function words have been left out and the sentence no longer makes sense.

"Notably, far too many of the children with the greatest potential to become good bilinguals . . . fluency in their parents’ language. It’s estimated that . . . have completely lost fluency in their heritage languages” (Snow).

Square brackets

Sometimes the grammar in a quotation from a source does not fit with the grammar in your own sentence. In this case you can use square brackets [like this] to show that something in the original text has been changed. For example, consider this quotation, which describes research that was done by psycholinguist Susan Ervin-Tripp:

According to Vince, "In the 1960s, one of the pioneers of psycholinguistics, Susan Ervin-Tripp, tested Japanese–English bilingual women, asking them to finish sentences in each language. She found that the women ended the sentences very differently depending on which language was used."

Although the quotation makes sense in a larger paragraph, it is not clear in the second sentence alone who "she" is, who "the women" are, and what "the sentences" are. If you wanted to use this sentence in your essay, you could use square brackets to clarify that information.

According to Vince, psycholinguist Susan Ervin-Tripp "found that women [who were bilingual in English and Japanese] ended the sentences [which researchers gave them to complete] very differently depending on which language was used."

Notice that "she" was also replaced by Ervin-Tripp's name. Because this is before the quotation marks, square brackets are not used. If you want to change a word at the beginning of the quotation, just start the quotation later.

Be careful! Don’t change the meaning of the original text when you use brackets. In the following example, the words in brackets change the meaning into something different. This is not acceptable.

According to Vince, "In the 1960s, one of the pioneers of psycholinguistics, Susan Ervin-Tripp, tested Japanese–English bilingual women, asking them [whether or not] to finish sentences in each language."

Checking your understanding of ellipses and square brackets

Let's see if you can identify which examples of ellipses and square brackets are correct.

Try this!

Here are three quotations from the article "The True Failure of Foreign Language Instruction" by Catherine Snow. Decide if each example uses square brackets and/or ellipses correctly.

1. In fact, "In [Snow's] view, it’s ironic that we have students walking up staircases at one end of their school building to attend Spanish foreign language classes while at the other end of the same building native Spanish speakers are being taught English and content in ways that lead to their loss of Spanish" (Snow).
2. In fact, "it’s ironic that we have students walking up staircases at one end of their school building to attend Spanish foreign language classes . . . being taught English and content in ways that lead to their loss of Spanish" (Snow).
3. Snow writes, "native Spanish speakers are being taught English and content in [order to] . . . lead to their loss of Spanish" (Snow).

(To see the answer, check 4.12: Integrating Evidence Answer Key)

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Works Cited

Snow, Catherine. “The True Failure of Foreign Language Instruction.” The Conversation, 24 Mar. 2021.

Vince, Gaia. "Why Being Bilingual Helps Keep Your Brain Fit." Mosaic, Aug. 2016, mosaicscience.com/bilingual-brains/.

Licenses and Attributions

CC Licensed Content: Original

Authored by Anne Agard and Elizabeth Wadell, Laney College, and Gabriel Winer, Berkeley City College. License: CC BY NC.