1.4: Describing Deaf Interpreters at Work

Rosemary Wanis, Ed.D, MSW, CDI

Certified Deaf Interpreters (CDIs) and Deaf Interpreters (DIs) are interpreters who, while being Deaf themselves, have been trained to interpret with Deaf people who have a wide range of linguistic skills. For the purpose of this resource, I will use the term “Deaf interpreter” or abbreviate as DI. A Deaf interpreter, in addition to being a generalist interpreter, is a person who has specialized knowledge, training, and experience in the use of mime, gestures, props, drawing, and other tools to ensure effective communication and who is—themselves—Deaf. This wide range of linguistic needs amongst Deaf, DeafBlind, and DeafDisabled includes: (terms 2 through 4 below from Kannappell, 1989).

1. Alingual – not having access to and/or not having knowledge of any formal language. Examples may include using only gestural communication, pointing, referring to things in the room or on their person to express what they need/want.
2. Semilingual – having some knowledge and access to language (expressively and/or receptively) in one or more languages. Examples may include a person who has some linguistic skills in American Sign Language or some reading/writing skills with English. Could also be someone who immigrated to the US from Japan (or other country) and has some Japanese Sign Language skills and/or some Japanese reading/writing skills. “Some” is the keyword as the person is not fluent in any one language and therefore may use a mixture of modalities to communicate.
3. Monolingual – having knowledge and access to language (expressively and receptively) in only one language. Examples may include a person who is fluent in ASL and does not read/write English. A person who is fluent in English and not ASL. A person who is fluent in Pakistani Sign Language and not in any other language.
4. Bilingual – having knowledge and access to two languages (expressively and receptively). Examples may include a person who is fluent in ASL and read/write in English. A person who is fluent in Eshareh Sign Language and read/write Farsi.
5. Multilingual – having knowledge and access to more than two languages (expressively and receptively). Examples may include a person who is fluent in ASL and read/write English as well as Mexican Sign Language and read/write Spanish. A person who is fluent in Egyptian Sign Language and read/write Arabic and is fluent in French sign Language and read/write German. It could be someone fluent in six signed languages.

NOTE: With the advancement of Protactile Language some Deaf interpreters have training in this language, and some do not. Therefore, please consider Protactile Language as another language to add to the linguistic fluency categories listed above.

Where Deaf Interpreters Work

A DI works with a hearing interpreter (HI) to facilitate communication between the Deaf person and the hearing individual. Deaf Interpreters may work in all settings with Deaf, DeafBlind, DeafDisabled individuals as well as those who grew up with the oral method of communication as some DIs are comfortable with English mouthing and lip-reading (not all as this is not a part of our training). Settings may include mental health, medical, legal, social services, healthcare, Department of Motor Vehicles, education (K-12 and post-secondary), employment, entertainment, sports, and more (National Consortium of Interpreter Education Centers: NCIEC, 2009). Deaf Interpreters are strongly recommended for working with children, immigrants/refugees, complex and stressful situations, and in settings where there is a power imbalance.

In their chapter on “Deaf Interpreters: An Introduction”, the authors identified several settings, situations, and circumstances where a Deaf interpreter would be ideal (Adam, et al., 2014a). The list provided below is from this chapter and is certainly not exhaustive when:

1. written translation is needed
2. power balance is needed by including another Deaf person in the space
3. translations or interpretations are needed for television or other media
4. media access is being provided such as on websites, hand-held guides at public spaces such as museums, historic site tours, etc.
5. in a mental health setting
6. the situation involved child protection
7. a legal situation arises which may lead to an arrest
8. in an educational setting: including classroom, workshops, training, and more
9. attending a life event such as weddings, funerals, ceremonies, and rituals of various types

Tester (2018) provided a list of other settings that Deaf interpreters work in his literature review and confirmed Deaf interpreters have been observed around the world working in the following ways:

1. national and international conferences;
2. between two [or more] signed languages such as from Danish Sign Language to International Signs or from British Sign Language to American Sign Language;
3. from subtitles into a signed language or vice versa; and
4. interpreting the news on televised emergency broadcasts (as seen during COVID-19 all around the world).

Benefits of Deaf Interpreters

When working with Deaf interpreters, the message was found to be more accurate due to their innate ability to codeswitch and incorporate invaluable cultural mediation that takes place within their work. Empowered Deaf participants working with Deaf interpreters ensured their own message was clear resulting in increased trust as their specific linguistic and cultural needs and differences were respected in regard to both context and content (Morgan & Adam, 2014; CATIE Center, 2019; Langholtz, 2004).

It has been shown that Deaf consumers, particularly those with extraordinary language needs and preferences, are often best served by Deaf and hearing interpreters working in tandem. Each partner, the DI and the HI, brings special skill and knowledge sets to the interpreted interaction, which together can produce successful outcomes for all consumers (Mathers, 2009). Interpreters are “responsible for interpreting information in a way that matches the linguistic needs of the deaf person to help ensure the deaf [person] gets the equivalent message that is provided to a hearing person” (Potterveld, 2008, p. 17).

Deaf Interpreters, by their mere presence support a Deaf Space or habitus (Morgan & Adam, 2012). The Deaf interpreter will monitor to assure that the Deaf participant has a sense of “Deaf Space” in which both the Deaf participant and the DI can share their language and culture and interact with each other. The Deaf space is also known as a “habitus” where they can feel “at home” and not feel alone, knowing someone understands and shares common experiences as a Deaf person oppressive experience, with a deep understanding of nuances to the languages being used, and so much more. It is critical that the DI supports the Deaf participant in having this Deaf space. Morgan & Adam (2012) identify habitus with a DI may first include alignment with language and cultural ‘sameness’ because both the DI and Deaf consumer share the same language and culture.

Secondly, it also includes bonding by having a DI present can allow the Deaf consumer to feel a bond and to be able to trust the DI. The Deaf consumer can observe how the DI interacts with the hearing interpreter as well as the hearing consumer and others within that environment. The Deaf consumer can notice that the Deaf-Hearing interpreter team trusts each other. With that bonding, the Deaf consumer can then trust that they will get what they need or what they came for.

Lastly, it includes linguistic presence with a DI being present, the language and culture of the Deaf consumer can be present. Purpose is to “overcome the language barriers and cultural misunderstandings that could cause non-English-speaking [persons] to be linguistically absent from their own legal proceedings” (de Jongh, 2008, p. 21).

How Does the Flow of Communication Work?

In scenarios where a DI is present, there will be two interpreters, a HI and a DI, facilitating the conversation between the Deaf and hearing participants. The HI will take the words of the hearing person and interpret it into ASL for the DI, who then takes that information and interprets it to the Deaf person (image below shows the Deaf person as a patient in a hospital bed) in a way that facilitates habitus.

Images by Regina Wetzel https://blog.cyracom.com/ciiblog/icymi-using-certified-deaf-interpreters-cdis-communicate-with-the-deaf

1. English speaker (Doctor) to hearing interpreter
2. Hearing interpreter to Deaf Interpreter
3. Deaf Interpreter to Deaf patient

The reverse process works in the same way. The Deaf patient will sign or gesture to the DI who then interprets into ASL for the HI. The HI then takes that information and interprets it into English for the English speaker (doctor). See image below.

Images by Regina Wetzel https://blog.cyracom.com/ciiblog/icymi-using-certified-deaf-interpreters-cdis-communicate-with-the-deaf

1. Patient to Deaf Interpreter
2. Deaf Interpreter to hearing interpreter
3. Hearing interpreter to English speaker

Deaf interpreters are a valuable resource to the interpreting profession. The Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID) has a Standard Practice Paper that provides information on the uses of Deaf interpreters and why they are essential.

Note: as of 2024 the Standard Practice Paper is being completely revised and should be available soon. See video under resources about the benefits for using Deaf interpreters.

Ethical Considerations for Deaf Interpreters

According to the National Consortium of Interpreter Education Centers (NCIEC) (2009):

The duty to recommend a DI is sparked when both prongs of this test are met:

1. the hearing interpreter is unable to produce a satisfactory interpretation in a language the Deaf person understands; and
2. a Deaf interpreter will be able to assist, enhance, or improve the quality of the interpretation by rendering it in a language the Deaf person understands.

Therefore, the HI has an ethical and statutory obligation to inform decision makers when a DI needs to be brought into any given situation. Hearing interpreters are often the gatekeeper; however, best practices show that a full team (Deaf and hearing interpreters) should be called to the first assignment and make the decision/recommendation together on how the participants should be served both culturally and linguistically.

Sheneman (2016) reminds us that the ethical decision-making processes of Deaf interpreters are influenced by their Deaf Extra-Linguistic Knowledge (DELK), which cannot be learned, but can be honed through interpreter education. Sheneman’s article describes the flexibility often ascribed to DIs to allow various liberties, which HIs often do not feel comfortable taking. In fact, to not call in a DI could be considered an ethical violation of RID’s Code of Professional Conduct (Beldon, 2015).

Deaf interpreters are different from hearing interpreters in the following ways;

1. They share a language and culture with Deaf students
2. They contribute to extra-linguistic knowledge that most non-deaf interpreters do not have
3. They capture nuances of meaning and intention
4. They can share our linguistic and cultural experiences in an authentic way
5. They model information naturally to support language, cognitive, and social skill development (Sheneman, 2016).

Adam et al., (2014a) added that Deaf interpreters’ lifelong exposure and experiences interacting with family members, peers, and/or the others in the educational setting who are also Deaf contributes significantly to their DELK which informs their interpreting schemas. This may include early experiences of growing up with interpreters and their own interpreting for family and peers. Their own personal experiences of comprehending different interpreters and Deaf people with various communication styles and modalities. Many have also had personal experiences with discrimination in the form of audism, vidism, distantism, and linguicism as well as oppression, marginalization, and being minoritized. All of these have an impact on Deaf people in their work as interpreters and in their decision-making process that support equity in communication and linguistic presence.

In addition to the wealth of lived experiences, Deaf interpreters are language models with “strong academic content knowledge and the ability to unpack academic information between two languages from the lexical level to the discourse level in order to interpret effectively” (Kurz, 2023, p. 20). Often HIs are placed in K12 settings after graduating from an interpreting program with the misconception that such an environment is easier or low risk. However, that assumption is erroneous (Bowen-Bailey, 1996). Deaf children need to be immersed in language-rich environments. The mainstream experiment needs to include Deaf Interpreters as the solution to minimize the impact that we are currently witnessing of language, culture, and social deprivation amongst our children.

Wanis (2019) conducted research in K-12 settings on Deaf-Hearing interpreter teams. As a result of this research, she identified three primary positionalities often used in classroom settings. The three positionalities are:

1. Traditional X Formation
2. Cultural Mediator/Expander
3. Clarifier/Monitor

The traditional X formation is most commonly how interpreters position themselves when working in a Deaf-Hearing interpreter team. The hearing interpreter is in the back of the classroom and can see both the Deaf interpreter and teacher who are both standing in the front of the classroom.

The clarifier/monitor role is when the Deaf interpreter is positioned next to the Deaf student. The hearing interpreter is in the front of the classroom with the teacher. The Deaf interpreter monitors the Deaf student and interpreter and provides information to the student when needed. The Deaf interpreter is there to provide additional support to the Deaf student(s) in the classroom. The Deaf interpreter provides support to the hearing interpreter as well, providing feedback on how to sign concepts.

The cultural mediator/expander role is when the Deaf interpreter is working in a classroom with the teacher of the Deaf. There is no hearing interpreter in this environment. The Deaf interpreter will position themselves next to the teacher of the Deaf. There may be students in the classroom who will benefit from a Deaf interpreter who can provide cultural examples or expand concepts.

Deaf Interpreters in Postsecondary Settings

Closing Thoughts

To conclude, working with Deaf interpreters has become the standard of best practice. Even so, not enough training, exposure and conversations surround this topic; certainly not as much as needed. The information provided herein is both an introduction and a summary of various resources to point you in the right direction to learn more while deepening your own understanding and appreciation of the benefits of Deaf interpreters.

Tips and Additional Thoughts

Quick tips

Working with DI is an opportunity to be encouraged, welcomed, and embraced. Working together to facilitate linguistic presence, linguistic equity, to make decisions together when addressing demands and controls and to apply role-space makes closing the gap between hearing and Deaf people much more possible. As novice interpreters, please seek out opportunities to work with DI, participate in training that provide practice in working with them, observe whenever you can, and read/watch books/articles/videos that have been made solely for this purpose.

Activities

Activities

After reading and reviewing the content in the modules, develop a script of how you might ask for a Deaf interpreter as your team for an upcoming assignment or situation.

Consider the following scenarios and develop a different script for each:

Educational Setting

• You are a staff interpreter at a School District and a student who has attended the state school for the Deaf since preschool has recently transferred to the school where you work in a mainstream setting. This student is fluent in ASL and has primarily had Deaf teachers and Deaf peers. This student is age 14 and a freshman in high school experiencing mainstream education for the first time. You feel that a Deaf interpreter would be quite beneficial in this setting working with this student. How do you share your observations with decision-makers such as the Teacher of the Deaf, principal, and the Director of Special Education?

Medical Setting

• A 72-year-old Deaf patient arrives at the Emergency Department and upon arrival you quickly identify that the patient has recently been in a Domestic Violence situation. Patient is shaking, overwhelmed, in tremendous physical pain, and is frightened. You want to bring in a Deaf interpreter. How do you ask the medical provider and the manager of the ED about your request?

Social Service Setting

• A 35-year-old Deaf immigrant just moved to the U.S. from Nigeria and while fluent in Nigerian Sign Language, is still learning both English and ASL. You feel a Deaf interpreter would be beneficial during this appointment with International Immigration Support Services. The purpose of this meeting is to identify what resources the person already has and what is needed (such as housing, medical care, childcare, employment, education, and more). How do you tell the social worker assigned to this case about the need to bring in a Deaf interpreter?

Resources

Deaf Interpreting and Team Interpreting Print Articles

Bentley-Sassaman, J., & Dawson, C. (2012). Deaf-hearing interpreter teams: A teamwork approach. Journal of Interpretation, 22(1).

Boudreault, P. (2005). Deaf Interpreters. In T. Janzen (Ed.), Topics in Signed Language Interpreting: Theory and practice. John Benjamins Publishing.

Egnatovitch, R. (1999). Certified Deaf interpreter-WHY?. Registry of Interpreters for Deaf, RID VIEWS, 1(6).

Fichera-Lening, R. (2016, August 1). When there are no words: ASL/English interpreter practices with alingual and semi-lingual Deaf immigrant children. [Master’s Theses]. Western Oregon University. https://digitalcommons.wou.edu/theses/32

Forestal, E. M. (2011). Deaf Interpreters: Exploring their Processes of Interpreting. PhD Dissertation. Capella University.

Green, T. (2017, April 28). What is available for potential Deaf interpreting students? Obtaining a snapshot of colleges that offer a B.A. or B.S. in interpreting studies. [Master’s Theses]. Western Oregon University. https://digitalcommons.wou.edu/theses/36

Mathers, C. (2009). Modifying instruction in the Deaf interpreting model. International Journal of Interpreter Education, 1, 68-76.

Mathers, C. (2009). Deaf Interpreters in Court: An accommodation that is more than reasonable. http://www.interpretereducation.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Deaf-Interpreter-in-Court_NCIEC2009.pdf

Mathers, C., and Witter-Merithew, A. (2014). The contribution of Deaf interpreters to gatekeeping within the interpreting profession: Reconnecting with our roots. In Biennial Conference – Our Roots: The Essence of Our Future, 1–16. Conference of Interpreter Trainers (CIT).

Moers, P. W. (2017). Working with Deaf refugees and immigrants. Odyssey. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1143217.pdf

Moyers, P. (2011). Certified Deaf interpreters. ASL News, 12(3). http://www.berkeleycitycollege.edu/w...2/spring11.pdf

National Consortium of Interpreter Education Centers. (2010). Deaf interpreters as reasonable accommodation: Fact sheet. http://www.unco.edu/marie/pdfs/For Legal Interpreters/Resources about DeafInterpreters/FactSheet_Deaf_Interpreters_Reasonable_Accommodation.pdf

NCIEC Deaf Interpreter Work Team. (2009). Findings of a national survey on Deaf interpreters. National Consortium of Interpreter Education Centers. http://www.interpretereducation.org/...ter_Survey.pdf

Nyembewe, G., & McKinsey, K. (2011). A Deaf refugee from Bhutan impresses in Canada with her enthusiasm. UNHCR. http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/stor...tml?query=deaf pabi

Judicial Council of California/ Administrative Office of the Courts. (2010). Recommended guidelines for the use of Deaf intermediary interpreters. California Courts Language Access Service. https://languageaccess.courts.ca.gov/sites/default/files/partners/default/2023-12/CIP_GID.pdf

Rogers, J. (2016, May 16). Deaf interpreter education: Stories and insights shared by working Deaf interpreters and Deaf interpreting students. [Master’ Theses]. Western Oregon University. https://digitalcommons.wou.edu/theses/31

Savage, S. (2007, July 17). “Deaf ESL Students Doubly Challenged.” Portland Press Herald. http://www.redorbit.com/news/education/970713/deaf_esl_students_doubly_challenged/

Steiner, B. (1998). Signs from the void: The comprehension and production of sign language on television. Interpreting, 3(2), 99-146.

Stone, C. (2009). Toward a Deaf Translation Norm. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press.

Stone, C. (2005). Deaf Translators on Television: Reconstructing the notion of ‘interpreter’. University of Bristol, Department of Sociology.

Stone, C., and Russell, D. (2011). “Interpreting in International Sign: Decisions of Deaf and Non-Deaf Interpreters.” WASLI 2011 Conference Proceedings, 100–118.

Tester, C. (2018.) How American Sign Language-English interpreters who can hear determine need for a Deaf interpreter for court proceedings. Journal of Interpretation, 26(1).

Signed Articles about Deaf Interpreters:

Beldon, J. (2015). Interpreting without a Deaf interpreter is an RID CPC violation. StreetLeverage. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ye6aYgtbG6U

Forestal, E. (2015). Deaf Interpreters: Shaping the Future of the Sign Language Interpreting Profession. Street Leverage. https://streetleverage.com/live_presentations/deaf-interpreters-shaping-the-future-of-the-sign-language-interpreting-profession/

Rogers, J. (2016). Where’s the welcome mat? Opening the door to Deaf interpreters. Street Leverage. https://streetleverage.com/2016/10/w...-interpreters/

Yunashko, B. (2016). Deaf interpreters as a weapon against vidism. StreetLeverage. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7l4l1MKI5jM

Website Resources:

• ASL with Andrew – DI https://www.aslwithandrew.com/interpreting
• Benefits of Deaf Interpreters https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ec8LjnVuJx8
• CALI – self-paced online learning modules (units of learning with focus on Deaf interpreting and teaming) https://www.northeastern.edu/cali/cali-online-learning/
• CATIE Center. Open process teaming model, from A Deaf Interpreter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFfSI4egMB0&t=691s
• CDIs in Court https://www.courts.ca.gov/documents/CIP_GID.pdf
• Cokely Model for Deaf Interpreters https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1ToQZE4LR0
• Deaf Interpreters: Things to Know https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=paeOF5iRdqY
• ASL videos from Project Climb (playlist of videos) https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCa1...grLdWVzQlXUNBA
• Gish processing model as explained by Deaf Interpreter, Jerrin George with CATIE Center https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pOZ97x7lB8k
• Linguabee; What is a Deaf Interpreter https://learn.linguabee.com/what-is-a-deaf-interpreter/
• Mentoring Toolkit Video List: http://www.interpretereducation.org/...oolkit-videos/
• Mock Interpreting IEP meeting https://vimeo.com/689482372/0f93616a4f
• Mock Interpreting with Gestuno https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mY66b2lKOLk&list=PLmjvdaJRb2jWzcGG0NYF-61yLE81RYqe3&index=8

Mock interpreting

• Guardian ad litem – Child Meeting http://www.interpretereducation.org/tim/video-series/highly-effective-court-interpreting-teams-in-action/guardian-ad-litem-and-deaf-child-meetings/
• NCIEC Curriculum for DI-HI Teams http://www.interpretereducation.org/teaching/classroom-modules/di-hi-teams/unit-3-instructor-guide/
• NCIEC Deaf Interpreters as reasonable accommodations http://www.interpretereducation.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/FACT_SHEET_Deaf_Interpreters_as_reasonable_accommodations.pdf
• NCIEC Deaf Interpreter Competencies http://www.diinstitute.org/di-competencies/
• NCIEC Legal Specialization includes info about CDIs http://www.interpretereducation.org/specialization/legal/
• Protactile Language Interpreting https://www.protactilelanguageinterpreting.org/
• Ressler’s Research in ASL on Deaf/Hearing teams https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wqUftVYB6p8
• Southern California RID – FAQs about Deaf interpreters https://www.scrid.org/deaf-interpreter-FAQs
• Various resources to use for practice: https://digiterp.com/new/video-resources/

Videos of Deaf Interpreters in Action:

• Deaf Interpreter in Mental Health with pre-conf with provider and post-conference with team https://vimeo.com/689483319/71d9d74b39
• Sample pre-conference for IEP https://vimeo.com/689369095/11d3826049
• Medical Setting Deaf-Hearing Interpreting Team with the use of Props https://vimeo.com/104494171
• Visiting Nurse with HI on Screen with DI-HI Team https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rqih5F-V9uU
• Independent Living appointment with HI-DI team https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lQHrfhLap0s
• Practice Videos for Deaf Interpreters https://noviceinterpreters.org/deaf-...opment-topics/

References

Adam, R., Aro, M., Druetta, J. C., Dunne, S. and Klintberg, J. (2014a). Deaf Interpreters: An Introduction. In Deaf Interpreters at Work: International Insights. Adam, R., Stone, C., Collins, S., and Metzger, M. (eds), 1-18. Gallaudet University Press.

Adam, R., Stone, C., Collins, S. D., & Metzger, M. (2014b). Deaf Interpreters at Work: International Insights. Gallaudet University Press.

Bowen-Bailey, D. (1996). The challenges of educational interpreting. RID Views, 13(3), 16.

CATIE Center. (2019, July 25). The Acculturation Gap Model. https://www.yourtube.com/watch?v=SLHGekIXHZw

De Jongh, E. M. (2008). Court interpreting: linguistic presence v. linguistic absence. Florida Bar Journal, 82(7), 20+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A1869...p&xid=04aa0626

Glickman, N.S., & Hall, W.C. (Eds.). (2018). Language Deprivation and Deaf Mental Health (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315166728

Kannappell, B. (1989). Inside the Deaf Community. In S. Wilcox, American Deaf Community (pp. 21-28). Linstock Press.

Kurz, K. (2023). Deaf Interpreters as Educational Interpreters. In L. Johnson, M. Taylor, B. Schick, S. E. Brown, L. Bolster, & E. G. Girardin (Eds). Complexities in Educational Interpreting: An Investigation into Patterns of Practice (pp. 19–21). essay, Interpreting Consolidated.

Langholtz, D. (2004). Deaf interpreters today: A growing profession. WFD News, 17(1), 17.

Mathers, C. (2009). The deaf interpreter in court. http://www.interpretereducation.org/..._NCIEC2009.pdf

Morgan, P., & Adam, R. (2012). Deaf interpreters in mental health settings: Some reflections on and thoughts about Deaf interpreter education. In L. Swabey & K. Malcolm (Eds.), In our hands: Educating healthcare interpreters (pp. 190–208). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.

NCIEC. (2009). Findings of a national survey of Deaf interpreters conducted spring 2007. http://www.interpretereducation.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/NCIEC_Deaf_Interpreter_Survey.pdf

Potterveld, T. (2008). Deaf suspects and constitutional rights. https://diinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Deaf-Suspects.pdf

Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf. (1997). Standard practice paper use of a certified Deaf interpreter. https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B3DKvZMflFLdbXFLVVFsbmRzTVU/view?resourcekey=0-DOFw0jDu1kIDMlsVKhi29g

Sheneman, N. (2016). Deaf interpreters; ethics: Reflections on training and decision-making. Journal of Interpretation, 25(1), 1-21. https://digitalcommons.unf.edu/joi/vol25/iss1/8/

Tester, C. (2018). How American Sign Language-English interpreters who can hear determine need for a Deaf interpreter for court proceedings, Journal of Interpretation, 26(1), Article 3. ​​https://digitalcommons.unf.edu/joi/vol26/iss1/3

Wanis, R. (2019). DIs Work in Post-Secondary Settings? #YES CAN! https://youtu.be/DgFQGwDufR4

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