2.10: Cultural Shifts- Pulling Ballet into the Future

Standards and methods are changing. Companies are now incorporating cross training- methods of strengthening and injury prevention (Fine, 2022, para. 6) and nutritionists to support their dancers as a whole.

Ballet dancers who have been on the receiving end of emotional and physical abuse are starting their own, more progressive ballet companies. An example of this is Maria Caruso. As a student she was informed she would be better suited for modern dance. Not wanting to give up dancing sur la pointe, Caruso was later counseled to get a breast reduction. Caruso founded Pittsburgh’s Bodiography Contemporary Ballet.

…a company dedicated to showcasing dancers with non-stereotypical ballet bodies. However, as chair of the performing arts department at La Roche University, she knows she can’t pretend that students of all body types have the same shot at getting placed in ballet companies. Proportions still matter, and in a field full of type A personalities, dancers who don’t have the “perfect” body are often made to feel as though they’re simply not working hard enough. (Henderson, 2021, para. 2)

Caruso’s redirection is not uncommon. Ballet dancers who don’t have the “ballet body” are often told to pivot to modern dance, contemporary dance, or Broadway.

A Message from the Author

As someone who predominately teaches adult recreational ballet students, I am used to new students timidly approaching me after class to tell me they danced as a child or teen. They pause, and I half-jokingly break the ice by asking, “How was ballet ruined for you?” With a look of relief, they proceed to share the (at times brutal) methods inflicted on their minds and bodies. My dancers are not on a pre-professional or professional track, so I have greater leeway when it comes to expectations and rigor. That being said, when a dancer is confronted with limited turn out, a shallow plié, or any number of other impediments, I say the goal is to make ballet look like it is tailor-made for your body– not to contort your body to fit an unnatural aesthetic. A custom-made garment camouflages perceived imperfections; in understanding the intentions supporting the technique you can similarly camouflage physical shortcomings.

Responding to Cultural Shifts- Pulling Ballet into the Future

Sometimes ballet is leading society, and sometimes ballet is slow in responding to social change. Be it integration, representation, doing away with stereotypes, or the Me Too Movement; ballet has lagged in keeping up with the sign of the times.

Starting in drips and drabs, the integration of professional ballet companies slowly gains momentum. Sisters Maria and Marjorie Tallchief are Indigenous Americans of the Osage Nation. In 1946 Maria Tallchief joins the newly established New York City Ballet becoming the company’s prima ballerina. Marjorie is the first Indigenous American named première danseuse étoile in the Paris Opera Ballet.

Receiving a full-time dance contract in 1955, Raven Wilkinson is the first African American woman to perform professionally with Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo of New York City. Ms. Wilkinson rises to soloist a year later; performing with the company from 1955-1961(Boston Ballet, n.d., para. 5). 1955 also sees Arthur Mitchell transitioning from performing on Broadway to debuting with New York City Ballet in George Balanchine’s Western Symphony; a year later Mitchell is named a principal dancer with the NYCB.

Sadly, even 70 years after these trailblazers broke down barriers we are still counting firsts. Most notably is Misty Copeland. In 2015, “after fourteen years with American Ballet Theatre, Misty Copeland [is] promoted to principal dancer becoming the first African American woman ever to hold that position in the company” (Boston Ballet, n.d., para. 18).

Arthur Mitchell and Karel Shook’s Dance Theatre of Harlem is founded in 1969 in response to the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Providing a safe haven to African American ballet dancers in a time of civil unrest– the artists of this time facing racism not only in their everyday lives but also from within the European-centric ballet world. In cultivating African American excellence in ballet, the Dance Theatre of Harlem’s national and international reach simultaneously broadcasts the company’s technical prowess and rightfully assert African Americans’ place in ballet canon. Unfortunately, one step forward is often followed by a step or two unwinding the progress made. In creating schools, companies, and organizations on par with the establishment allows the establishment to carry on with their practice of separate but equal. The pull of integration slowing to drips and drabs.

Deep Dive: Janet Collins

As an African American in the 1930s, Janet Collins is refused entry to local ballet schools. Undeterred, Collins hires a private ballet tutor. By age 15 Collins is auditioning for Leonide Massine, the current director of Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo. To join the company Massine informs Collins she would need to perform in whiteface. Rejecting these terms Collins bides her time. In 1951 Collins goes on to be the first African American premier ballerina in the Metropolitan Opera Ballet (J. Jacolbe, 2019).

Inclusion & Representation

Figure 2.48 Dance Theatre of Harlem in rehearsal

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dance_Theatre_of_Harlem_in_Carr%C3%A9,_repetitie,_Bestanddeelnr_924-7624.jpg&oldid=547178875)

Figure 2.49 Dance Theatre of Harlem in performance

(https://openverse.org/image/addfbe15-30c4-4c9a-9316-22dfee82143f?q=Dance%20theater%20of%20Harlem)

In an often-repeated sentiment– representation matters. Think of the impact of the movies Black Panther (2018) and Crazy Rich Asians (2018) in pop culture. Up until the 1970s, African American ballet students and ballerinas exist in two worlds, the dress code of European pink tights and shoes incongruous with the natural skin tones of their face, arms, legs, and back.

In 1974 Dance Theatre of Harlem company member Llanchie Stevenson persuades Arthur Mitchell to adopt tights and shoes in corresponding flesh-tone hues. In 2018 Freed of London “one of the largest manufacturers of pointe shoes, finally started selling brown and bronze pointe shoes (in addition to pink). ‘This isn’t about shoes, this is about who belongs in ballet and who doesn’t,’ said Virginia Johnson, artistic director of the Dance Theatre of Harlem. ‘It’s a signal that the world is open to you’” (Boston Ballet, n.d., para. 20).

Dance Magazine reported on the swift action dancewear companies took in response to Black Lives Matter protests and signed petitions for inclusivity.

In the wake of Black Lives Matter protests sparked by the killings of Ahmaud Arbery, Breonna Taylor and George Floyd, online pressure brought an ongoing issue with dancewear brands to an inflection point… But in the course of a few days this June, first Bloch, then Russian Pointe, Capezio, Nikolay, Grishko and Suffolk announced a commitment to offering darker hues of tights and shoes (Howard, 2020, para. 1).

Black/Brown/Yellowface in Ballet

The practice of a (usually white) performer wearing makeup to imitate the appearance of a non-Caucasian character typically in performance. This practice is generally regarded as offensive; skin color should not be treated as a component of costuming.

This convention is not limited to ballet. Entertainment throughout the ages has fallen back on this hurtful custom. American Minstrel shows (early 19th century to mid 20th century) sees both white and African American performers apply black makeup in caricature portrayals of African Americans. Filmic examples include Mickey Rooney (a white actor) portraying Mr. Yunioshi (a Japanese character) in Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1961), West Side Story (1961) sees Latinx actors and non-Latina Natalie Wood in brownface to portray Puerto Ricans, and Robert Downey Jr.’s turn at portraying a white actor playing an African American in Tropic Thunder (2008). Television shows have also used Black/Brown/Yellowface as a comedic device. Recent shows such as 30 Rock, Community, and The Office have episodes which have been edited or pulled from syndication.

Questioning ballet’s storylines and characterizations are relatively new practices. This push to reevaluate and rehabilitate ballet narratives is as impactful to ballet as the civil rights movement ushering in a systemic (though slow-moving) integration of ballet companies or Marie Taglioni pushing ballet technique forward with the first performance to include “toe dancing”. Final Bow for Yellowface is an organization challenging ballet companies “to eliminate outdated and offensive stereotypes of Asians (Yellowface) on our stages” (2017, para. 1) by providing education and resources to ballet companies. Founded by New York City Ballet soloist Georgina Pazcoguin and arts administrator and educator Phil Chan, Final Bow for Yellowface is born out of a need to stop the presentation of 19th century Asian stereotypes in ballet. Marius Petipa and Lev Ivanov’s The Nutcracker (1892) is oftentimes a person’s introduction to ballet. By changing what is presented on stage we change the course of ballet– dancers and audiences are now educated with an authentic reflection of Asian culture and people of Asian descent see themselves represented in ballet.

Need to Know More?

Visit yellowface.org to sign the pledge. Explore other ballets with Black/Brown/Yellowface caricatures: Marius Petipa's La Bayadère (1877) and Raymonda (1898); Mikhail Fokine's Schéhérazade (1910) and Petroushka (1911) and see how companies are changing the narrative.

#Me Too Movement

Professional female dancers and instructors have been a part of ballet since the 1700s, with women joining the ranks of choreographer in the 1900s. Even with the addition of women to the ballet system, leadership is distinctly fraternal. Within the ballet world, the Me Too Movement cracks open the rampant sexual harassment, physical and emotional abuse, and overall toxic work culture. In December of 2017, Peter Martins, artistic director of the New York City Ballet, steps down after allegations of misconduct. Well-known companies such as the English National Ballet, Paris Opera, and Finnish National Ballet all take a hard look at their directors, staff, and guest choreographers.

Queer Bodies and Ballet

Queer bodies and queer bodies in ballet is not a new phenomenon. Have those bodies been celebrated for their artistry and contributions? Sadly, not as consistently as heteronormative artists and creatives. While we know of a handful of queer dancers/dance pioneers from the past (Marie Sallé, Sergei Diaghilev, Vaslav Nijinsky, and Léonide Massine) who knows how many queer people lived performative public lives and private queer lives.

Language

The term “queer” pops up in the English language in 1508 denoting a peculiarity, eccentricity, or abnormality. During this time this label infers an affliction of mild insanity or incompatibility with society. Turn of the 19th century the use of queer includes drunkards. Over the decades connotations change and (d)evolve. Along the way the use of queer infers worthlessness or pertaining to thieves. By the late 1800s queer functions as a demeaning catch-all phrase for effeminate men, gay men, and nonconforming gender behavior. And for the better part of the 20th century queer is a highly denigratory term meant to designate a homosexual.

The inflection point for the queer community is the HIV/AIDS crisis of the 1980s and 1990s. After the initial backlash, openly gay men and women make strides by establishing respectable positions within the community at large. Progress is also made by way of academic research in gay, lesbian, and gender studies. Because of this work the term

…queer began to be used as an inclusive, socio-politically unifying term that designates all those who are sexually dissident, including self-identified gays, lesbians, and bisexuals but also those who are transgender, transsexual, intersexual and/or genderqueer, as well as those who embrace any other transgressive form of sexuality. These may include asexuality or autosexuality, and even nonnormative modes of heterosexuality. (Hoogland, 2007, p. 1235)

This brief look at language shows how words can change, take on new meaning, and be reclaimed. Through inter-cultural dialogue and reflection, ballet schools and companies are making strides with inclusivity– making room in studios and companies; and embracing all audience members by diversifying the stories told on stage.

Examples of Queerness in Ballet

Peter Stoneley’s A Queer History of the Ballet exposes snapshots of ballet’s intersection with queerness. The blatant stereotyping of linking homosexuals to fairies creatures is quickly replaced with Stoneley’s assertion that it is

…appropriate to begin with the shadowy presence of fairies to the extent that the connection between homosexuality and ballet has for so long been there and not there, both ‘common knowledge’ and ‘hushed up’. If, for much of the twentieth century, there was a strong popular perception of a link between ballet and homosexuality, that link was usually denied, suppressed, or ignored by the dance world. (P. Stoneley, 2007, p. 1)

And while ballet is seen as conventional with antiquated imagery and notions on gender, Stoneley maintains that ballet does have daring icons and chapters. A contemporary example of underground/subculture infiltrating and influencing popular culture is the emergence of Drag culture…”Drag has always influenced mainstream pop culture, but because of its underground roots, people appropriated from it without giving credit” (Carey-Mahoney, 2016, para. 9). These queer performers and queer performers of color are contributing to the pop culture dialogue with fashion, language, and dance. We can see similar contributions from marginalized figures in ballet as leaders and movements proving ballet to be a captivating “cultural phenomenon, and one that was vital to the emergence of a queer culture. From the nineteenth century into the twentieth, ballet provided images, legends, spaces, and institutions through which queer artists and fans could achieve some degree of visibility” (P. Stoneley, 2007, p. 2).

According to Stoneley, the components contributing to queer ballet are space, bodies, and movement.

Space

• The theatrical setting encourages a level of voyeurism. While ballets were actively promoted as opportunities (for heterosexual males) to observe the ballerina, in reality all bodies were contributing to any number of fantasies. These fairy tales commenting on a (homosexual) love that could never be.
• Conversely, contemporary LGBTQ+ performances “tend to happen in other spaces– nightclubs, galleries, festivals, streets, and protests” (S. Farrier, 2019, p. 1573).

Bodies

• Physically, ballet technique trains the human body to take on an unnatural form. Courtly etiquette infused into ballet to be performed by noble-born bodies. As discussed in ballet’s transition to the theatrical stage, professional performers (though not of noble lineage) began executing courtly affect more adeptly than the noble armature performer– usurping power and position from the aristocracy.
• People of color are also included in the queer body discussion. Stoneley lays out the complicated intersectionality of race, sexuality, and ballet.

To what extent is the ballet body automatically a white body, and how might the non-white dancing body have to negotiate or appeal to a different set of values with regard to masculinity and femininity? These questions have appeared in acute form in the United States. There have been moments in African American culture when homosexuality has been declared a ‘white disease’. At times the Black male classical dancer may have appeared to have turned aside from his more immediate cultural inheritance, while also confounding his culture’s idea of masculinity. This awkward intersection of racial and sexual values extends to the dancer’s relationship with a predominantly white audience. To what extent is that audience’s response determined by the racial preconceptions that it brings to the theatre? What stored fantasies and resentments might be at play? (2007, p. 15)

Movement

• When it comes to a physical representation of queerness in ballet, the adagio within the grand pas de deux, where the male dancer physically partners/manipulates the female dancer, can be seen as a metaphor for a man handling his own phallus (P. Stoneley, 2007, p. 13).
• Other visual cues of queerness include the batterie of male dancers, the pointe work (specifically the bourrée, lending itself to the creation of the unattainable fairy woman), turns, and musicality (P. Stoneley, 2007, p. 18).

Referring to the neoclassical era, Jennifer Homans describes the nuance and layers of homosexuality, society, and the modern art scene. In the time, location, and social climate of Sergei Diaghilev and Vaslav Nijinsky

Diaghilev’s homosexuality was openly established, and he loved and promoted many of his star male dancers, from Nijinsky to (later) Léonide Massine and Serge Lifar. But homosexuality at the time was not only a personal preference, it was a cultural stance: against bourgeois morality, with its stifle constraining style and etiquette. It was also an assertion of freedom– freedom for a man to appear “feminine” or (in Nijinsky’s case) androgynous, perhaps, but above all to be experimental and to follow inner instincts and desires rather than social rules and conventions. It is no accident that so many twentieth century modern artists and those involved with dance in particular were homosexual, or that sexuality was a genuine source of artistic innovation (Homans, 2010, p. 306).

Game Changers

Figure 2.50 Les Ballets Trockadero de Monte Carlo soloist performing parody of Dying Swan solo

(https://www.flickr.com/photos/113756879@N03/48021295257)

Les Ballets Trockadero de Monte Carlo, founded in 1974 “by a group of ballet enthusiasts for the purpose of presenting a playful, entertaining view of traditional, classical ballet in parody form and en travesti” (trockadero.org, n.d.). Though starting off as a rag-tag troupe, this all-male group quickly employed a ballet mistress to administer company class (every company member plays both male and female roles in performance) as well began booking legitimate gigs and receiving professional reviews. Internationally renowned, this company is breaking down barriers while supporting AIDS organizations, unhoused gay youth, and making theatre accessible to young people. Affectionately known as “The Trocks”, the company typically reserves Act I for their comical interpretations of classical ballet; with ACT II being a straight-ahead classical performance. This format allows the company to win over audiences in the first ACT, allowing for complete immersion in the second ACT.

Recently, the company has come under scrutiny for their response to company members who have transitioned. As members are to play both male and female roles, and the trans women company members will no longer portray male roles- oftentimes the dancer’s only choice is to quit a company and job that feel like home.

Figure 2.51 Les Ballets Trockadero de Monte Carlo parody of Swan Lake

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shirley_MacLaine_Ballets_Trockadero_de_Monte_Carlo_1977.JPG&oldid=722749957)

Matthew Bourne’s Swan Lake (1995) danced by his company New Adventures. Though using the original Tchaikovsky score, Matthew Bourne’s Swan Lake diverges from the original narrative to tell the story of a prince starved of maternal affection, haunted by swan imagery, and later confronted with a flock of male swans (New Adventures Charity, 2023). The contemporary story, the queering of The Swan/lead swan (the Odette/Odile figure), and the reimagined bevy of male swans made ballet more accessible to audiences. Building on that accessibility, the film Billy Elliot (2000)–which includes the main character transcending an Irish working-class background infused with homophobia to grow up and dance the role of The Swan– helped make males in ballet more acceptable.

Need to Know More? Queer the Ballet and Ballet22

Visit https://www.queertheballet.com/ to see how founder and artistic director Adriana Pierce along with co-founder and artistic advisor Patricia Delgado are broadening:

the scope of classical ballet to authentically include lgbtq+ voices and narratives. Focusing on queer cis women, trans people of all genders, and nonbinary dancers in ballet, #QueertheBallet seeks to "queer" our ballet spaces and explore choreography often absent from ballet stages.

By developing and producing works by queer artists, providing community support for lgbtq+ dancers and creators, and facilitating outreach and education, #QueertheBallet hopes to expand ballet partnering and choreography, offering a genuine representation of queer and gender-diverse ballet dancers (queertheballet.com, 2022, para. 1-2).

And to learn more about Ballet22 visit https://www.ballet21.com/

Founded in 2020 by Roberto Vega Ortiz and Theresa Knudson, Ballet22 exists to push the boundaries of what is possible in ballet by focusing on producing works that break gender normative traditions, specifically by presenting mxn and non-binary dancers en pointe.

Ballet22 focuses on commissioning works that bring LGBTQIA+ experiences and representation to the ballet stage (ballet21.com, n.d., para. 1-2)

Take Away:

Everyone must do the hard work to examine and question ballet (not mindlessly following tradition) to keep the style moving forward. Inclusion and diversity are key if ballet is to remain relevant.

Pop Culture

Ballet’s evolution over the centuries directly relates to the artform’s ability to remain relevant in the pop culture consciousness. From royal courts and theatres, ballet is now accessible via film, TV, reality competition shows, and social media platforms. Costuming and rehearsal clothes influencing streetwear trends has been happening for centuries. And we see ballet being fused with and influenced by different dance styles and music genres.

When it comes to ballet and recorded media, the movie musical capitalizes on ballet’s inherently theatrical quality. And televisions meant people across America could see the Broadway cast of Oklahoma! (1955) perform Laurey’s dream ballet. More recently, the behind-the-scenes stories of fictional studios and professional companies have become popular in film and TV; weaving together dance, character development, and plot to produce a more grounded (though sensationalized) reflection of ballet. Film/TV examples include Black Swan (2010), Bunheads (2012), Flesh and Bone (2015), and Tiny Pretty Things (2020). And don’t forget the dance competitions (the one that started it all So You Think You Can Dance (2005)) as well as people making their own ballet content on YouTube, Instagram, and TikTok.

Hemlines have been brought up a few times in this chapter (pun intended). When ballerinas raise their hemlines in search of technical advancement the rebuke is swift. You’ve probably never seen so many people scandalized over seeing a woman’s ankles (or calves, or knees). And after the scandal, we see women’s fashions change to emulate ballet costumes seen on stage. Currently, we are seeing a resurgence of the dancewear as streetwear trend. Shoes known as ballet flats have come in and out of fashion over the centuries. Modern-day ballet flats were brought into being in 1941 when:

…renowned fashion designer Claire McCardell fell in love with the simple, sleek design of the ballet flat. She commissioned Salvatore Capezio, the trusted shoemaker for the Metropolitan Opera House, to create a line of ballet flats that could be worn off-stage. Capezio added a hard sole to the classic ballet style, and the ballet flat we know and love today was born. (Aerosoles.com, 2023, para. 4)

Balletcore is complete with tulle skirts echoing the tutu, wrap sweaters, leg warmers, and don’t forget the messy bun! This current revival of balletcore is partially in response to the uptick in adult participation in ballet. More and more adults are turning to ballet as a low-impact exercise option with benefits to balance and flexibility.

Figure 2.52 Ballet Flats in a rainbow of colors

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Table_full_of_ballerina_shoes.jpg)

Deep Dive #1: Fashion + Ballet

Just like the union between music and dance, we see a similar give and take between fashion and dance. We've taken a look at ballet's influence on the runway and streetwear, but did you know well-known designers have been creating costumes for ballets? For more, check out Coco Chanel, Azzedine Alaïa, Yves Saint Laurent, Valentino, Rodarte, Christian Lacroix, Jason Wu, and Carolina Herrera... just to name a few (M. Perez, 2019).

Blending ballet with another (usually disparate) dance style is a way of keeping ballet in the popular consciousness. Lyrical dance– a combination of ballet and jazz dance, appeared on the dance scene in and around the 1970s. Pairing the isolations, dynamics, and weighted qualities of jazz dance with the fluidity, intricacy, and highly technical quality associated with ballet we see lyrical as an emotive storytelling style with dancing reflecting the lyrics of the song. Hiplet (a mash up of Hip Hop and ballet), developed by Homer Hans Bryant in the 1990s, is an Afro-centric artform “pulling from urban communities… Jazz, Latin, and African… but sticking to the classical ballet discipline” (hipletballerinas.com, 2022, para. 4). This style transplants hip hop leg moves onto the pointe shoe platform, rotating the legs from turn out to turned in, as well as dancing at a low level while remaining sur la pointe.

Deep Dive #2: Ballet Fusion

In the early 1900 s ballet and tap dance were fused together to create the style of toe-tap or toe tapping. Both men and women wearing pointe shoes with a metal plate attached to the platform of the shoe- performing traditional tap steps as well as stunt moves (ex: tap dancing up and down stairs). Traditionally, this style was performed on the Vaudeville circuit and later included in black and white films.

Révérence

Ballet is many things to many people: the epitome of discipline; rigid; elegant; outdated; a marriage of artistry and athleticism; unnatural; pushing boundaries; not pushing boundaries enough; and so on. The aim of this chapter is to provide historical context, demonstrate the back and forth between art, artist, and audience; and hopefully illustrate where there is room for you to personally explore and push the limits of ballet.