11.5: Writing Process- Reasoning Supported by Evidence
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Use organizational and reasoning strategies to compose texts that integrate the writer’s ideas with those from appropriate sources.
- Implement varying language structures in the process of composing.
- Develop flexible strategies for drafting and revising.
In this section you will practice writing paragraphs that demonstrate your ability to use the reasoning strategies discussed.
Summary of Assignment
Using three of the strategies for reasoning (analogy, cause and effect, classification and division, comparison and contrast, definition, or problem and solution), write at least three body paragraphs for your Position Argument: Practicing the Art of Rhetoric assignment. Write at least one single paragraph for each strategy you choose. You may write additional paragraphs in which you combine strategies.
Another Lens. Make a visual draft of your assignment by using photos you take, images you find online (be sure to adhere to copyright guidelines), images you create, or a combination of these. Your instructor will tell you whether to substitute visuals for all three paragraphs or just one or two. Put the title at the top of your poster and, if necessary, include explanations of your images. The images you use and the manner in which you arrange them should convey the same ideas you want to express about your subject in writing. The selected images should reflect your critical thinking on your subject and should invite the viewer also to think critically about your subject. You can read more about understanding various aspects of visual rhetoric in Image Analysis: Writing About What You See. Although the design arrangements, or layouts, for a poster are numerous, consider using one of these:
- Centered image—nucleus idea: The primary image is in the center of the poster. Other secondary images radiate outward from the primary image or are arranged around it another meaningful way.
- Left-to-right flow—horizontal: Images progress across the poster like lines of text, from left to right.
- Left-to-right flow—vertical: Images progress across the poster like lines of text in a column. Depending on the size of your poster, you could include from three to five columns of images.
- Two contrasting fields: Images are divided into two sections of the poster, some on the left and some on the right.
Definition text
Figure \(11.9\) This cause-and-effect poster with two contrasting fields indicates the possible result of working without eye protection in a lab. (credit: “A flask exploding, a left eye open without protection” by Science Museum Group/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 4.0)
Figure \(11.10\) In this centered-image poster illustrating the strategy of definition, the sentence indicates a requirement of communication, and the images indicate ways ii,koln which people communicate. (credit: “Communication affirmation poster, USAF” by Dave Ahlschwede/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
Quick Launch: Structural Paragraph Frames
Once you have determined your reasoning strategy and purpose for a particular paragraph, consider how to develop the evidence within that paragraph through a topic sentence, explanation, and analysis. To do this task, choose the most appropriate structure for a given paragraph from the structures below, and complete the frame according to the prompts. You may alter the frames as needed. Remember that each paragraph that you develop should support your thesis. In other words, make sure that each topic sentence ties back to your thesis.
| First, record your working thesis: _______ |
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Analogy
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Structure
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| Cause-and-Effect |
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| Classification and Division |
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| Comparison and Contrast |
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| Problem-and-Solution |
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| Definition |
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Drafting: Reasoning Strategies
As you write, keep in mind the reasoning strategy you are using. Then begin your draft by using the applicable frame for the paragraph. Beginning in this way will help you focus the details of the paragraph to ensure they support the thesis and provide the reasoning you need. Note that when you revise, you may choose to reword your frame and the sentences that develop it. Revisions like these are part of the recursive nature of the writing process.
Below are frames for types of writing, sample sentences of filled-in frames, patterns for the six reasoning strategies, and sample paragraphs. In the sample paragraphs, topic sentences are underlined, and transitional words and phrases are italicized.
Analogy
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Frame for analogy topic sentence:
(subject 1) _______________ is like (subject 2) _______________ in this way: (way in which they are similar)_____________________.
Learning a foreign language is like learning to ride a bicycle in this way: you must learn to perform multiple tasks, some at the same time . -
Structure for analogy paragraph comparing learning a foreign language and learning to ride a bicycle:
comparison: learning a foreign language compared to learning to ride a bicycle
reason/explanation/analysis: must learn the basic parts
reason/explanation/analysis: must learn how parts work together
reason/explanation/analysis: must learn multiple actions without thinking about them
Model analogy paragraph
Learning a foreign language is like learning to ride a bicycle: you must learn to perform multiple tasks, some at the same time . You first have to develop a foundational knowledge by learning how the individual parts of the bike work and how to use them, just as you learn the parts of speech of a language. Then you must learn how these parts work together. For example , through the action of pedaling the bike, you transfer energy to the wheels, causing them to rotate, thus moving the bike forward. Similarly , by learning how to use verbs in another language, you learn how to apply meaning that expresses an action or state of being. To steer the direction of the bike, you learn to change its path by turning the handlebars. To change the direction of a sentence, you learn how to control prepositions and modifiers. Most important, though , you must get to the point at which the actions of pedaling, steering, and balancing happen simultaneously and with little thought to the individual actions, just as you must do when speaking a foreign language.
Cause and Effect
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Frame for cause-and-effect topic sentence (Structure #1):
Because (cause/s) _______________ (what had happened), then (effect/s) ____________ (what happened).
Because vehicles sped without regard to the speed limit, pedestrians dodged traffic and accidents increased; for those reasons, a traffic signal was installed . -
Structure #1 for cause-and effect paragraph about reasons for installing a traffic signal:
explanation of the cause(s), followed by an explanation of the effect(s) that happened as a result of the cause(s)
cause: vehicles sped without regard to the speed limit
cause: pedestrians had to dodge traffic
cause: number of accidents increased
effect: traffic signal was installed
Model cause-and-effect paragraph about reasons for installing a traffic signal (Structure #1)
Many vehicles raced through the intersection of Clay Street and Eagle Avenue without regard to the posted speed limit. Pedestrians, many of whom were students, crossed the intersection to get to and from campus, but they had to dodge in and out of constant traffic. The number of accidents rose far past an acceptable limit. Indeed , one recent accident caused a loss of life. For these reasons , a traffic signal was installed at the intersection of Clay Street and Eagle Avenue.
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Frame for a cause-and-effect topic sentence (Structure #2):
(effect/s) __________________ (what happened) because (cause/s) ________________ (what had happened).
A traffic signal was installed because vehicles sped , people had to dodge traffic, and accidents increased. -
Structure #2 for cause-and effect paragraph about reasons for installing a traffic signal:
explanation of the effect(s), followed by an explanation of the causes(s) that led to the effect
effect: traffic signal was installed
cause: vehicles sped without regard to speed limit
cause: pedestrians had to dodge traffic
cause: number of accidents increased
Model cause-and-effect paragraph about reasons for installing a traffic signal (Structure #2)
A traffic signal was installed at the intersection of Clay Street and Eagle Avenue. Before it was installed, many vehicles raced through the intersection without regard to the posted speed limit. Pedestrians, many of whom were students, crossed the intersection to get to and from campus, but they had to dodge in and out of constant traffic. The number of accidents rose far past an acceptable limit. Indeed , one recent accident resulted in a loss of life.
Classification and Division
Notice that these paragraphs do not separate classification from division. Rather, they look at the same larger unit (sports drinks) from two angles: types of drinks that could be classified and the larger unit—sports drinks—broken down into smaller units contained within it.
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Frame for classification-and-division topic sentence (Structure #1):
(general subject) ____________ can be divided into (smaller categories) _______________, ______________, and ______________.
Sports drinks can be divided into hypotonic , isotonic , and hypertonic . -
Structure #1 for classification-and-division paragraph about types of sports drinks:
identification of the general subject followed by categories of that general subject
general subject: sports drinks
first category: hypotonic
second category: isotonic
third category: hypertonic
Model classification-and-division paragraph about types of sports drinks (Structure #1)
All sports drinks are designed to increase hydration before, during, and after exercise or athletic involvement . They do this by replacing minerals such as sodium and potassium lost through sweat and by replacing electrolytes and carbohydrates. However , not all sports drinks are created equally. The first type of sports drink, hypotonic (having a lower concentration of dissolved content than the human body), includes drinks that have both a low number of carbohydrates and a higher concentration of salt and sugar than the human body. Isotonic (having the same concentration of dissolved content as the human body) drinks have salt and sugar concentrations similar to the human body but have higher carbohydrate content. Last , hypertonic (having a higher concentration of dissolved content than the human body) drinks are designed to supplement daily carbohydrate intake and therefore have high levels of carbohydrates to provide quick energy replacement. Their salt and sugar concentration is significantly lower than the human body’s.
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Frame for classification-and-division topic sentence (Structure #2):
(smaller categories) ______________, _______________, and ____________ are divisions /types of (general subject)___________.
Hypotonic , isotonic , and hypertonic are types of sports drinks . -
Structure #2 for classification-and-division paragraph about types of sports drinks:
categories of general subject followed by identification of the general subject
smaller category: hypotonic
smaller category: isotonic
smaller category: hypertonic
general subject: sports drinks
Model classification-and-division paragraph about types of sports drinks (Structure #2)
Hypotonic (having a lower concentration of dissolved content than the human body) drinks include beverages that have both a low number of carbohydrates and a concentration of salt and sugar higher than the human body. Isotonic (having the same concentration of dissolved content as the human body) beverages have salt and sugar concentrations similar to the human body but have higher carbohydrate content. Last , hypertonic (having a higher concentration of dissolved content than the human body) beverages are designed to supplement daily carbohydrate intake and therefore have high levels of carbohydrate to provide quick energy replacement. Their salt and sugar concentration is significantly lower than the human body’s. What do these beverages have in common? All are types of sports drinks, designed to increase hydration before, during, and after exercise or athletic involvement .
Comparison and Contrast
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Frame for a comparison-and-contrast topic sentence (Structure #1):
One way (subject 1) __________ and (subject 2) __________ are alike is (similarity) __________; one way they differ is (difference) __________.
One way virtual learning and face-to-face learning are alike is that student responsibility is a key element in both ; one way they differ is in the methods students choose to be attentive . -
Structure #1 for comparison-and-contrast paragraph about virtual learning and face-to-face learning:
identification of two subjects followed by a point-by-point discussion
point 1: discussion of a similarity of virtual learning and face-to-face learning
point 2: discussion of a difference between virtual learning and face-to-face learning
Model comparison-and-contrast paragraph about virtual learning and face-to-face learning (Structure #1)
Student responsibility is a key factor in both virtual learning and face-to-face learning . In both settings, a student must be attentive in order to understand what is happening in the classroom and what is expected regarding readings, lab work, and other outside assignments. Differences occur in virtual classes and face-to-face classes, though, in how students choose to be attentive. Depending on how the virtual classes are set up, students’ attention can range from complete to nonexistent, and the instructor might never know how much attention a particular student is paying. With in-person classes, on the other hand , an instructor can see a student’s body language more closely and determine whether that student is attentive.
Figure \(11.11\) Informal face-to-face instruction (credit: “Creative writing class-fine arts center” by Leesa/ Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0)
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Frame for a comparison-and-contrast topic sentence (Structure #2):
One way (subject 1) ________ and (subject 2) _________ are different is (difference) _________; a way they are alike is (similarity) _________.
One way virtual learning and face-to-face learning are different is in the way students choose to be attentive ; a way they are alike is that student responsibility is a key element . -
Structure #2 for comparison-and-contrast paragraph about virtual learning and face-to-face learning:
identification of two subjects followed by a point-by-point discussion
point 1: discussion of a difference between virtual learning and face-to-face learning
point 2: discussion of a similarity of virtual learning and face-to-face learning
Model comparison-and-contrast paragraph about virtual learning and face-to-face learning (Structure #2)
One way that virtual learning and face-to-face learning are different is in the methods students choose to be attentive, but they are alike in that student responsibility is a key factor in both . With virtual learning, students must clear their study space of distractions and be sure to have reliable Internet connections. Alternatively , in face-to-face learning, the study area and Internet connections are already in place and are provided by the school. However , in both styles of classes, students have the responsibility to be attentive in order to understand what is happening in the classroom and what is expected as far as readings, lab work, and other outside assignments.
Problem and Solution
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Frame for problem-and-solution topic sentence (Structure #1):
The issue of (predicament/s or challenging issue/s) _____________________ was solved/can be solved by (what was done/what should be done) _____________________.
The issue of juveniles repeatedly committing crimes can be solved by treating juvenile offenders as adults . -
Structure #1 for problem-and-solution paragraph about trying juveniles as adults:
an explanation of problem(s), followed by the solution
problem: number of juveniles committing serious crimes is rising
problem: facilities to which these juveniles are sent have failed to rehabilitate them
problem: youths continue their life of crime solution: juveniles should be tried as adults
Model problem-and-solution paragraph about trying juveniles as adults (Structure #1)
Across the country, the number of juveniles committing serious crimes is rising dramatically . The facilities to which these juveniles are sent have failed to rehabilitate them, and a high percentage of the youths continue with their life of crime. Law-abiding citizens of the country, however , realize that this situation must change. By trying juveniles as adults, the issue of juveniles repeatedly committing crimes can be solved.
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Frame for problem-and-solution topic sentence (Structure #2):
By (what was done/what should be done) ____________________, the issue of (predicament/s or challenging issue/s) ___________________ would be solved/was solved.
By trying juveniles as adults , the issue of juveniles repeatedly committing crimes can be solved. -
Structure #2 for problem-and-solution paragraph about trying juveniles as adults:
an explanation of a solution, followed by the problems that necessitated it
solution: juveniles are tried as adults
problem: number of juveniles committing serious crimes is rising
problem: facilities to which these juveniles are sent have failed to rehabilitate them
problem: youths continue their life of crime
Model problem-and-solution paragraph about trying juveniles as adults (Structure #2)
Juveniles should be tried as adults . Across the country, the number of juveniles committing serious crimes is rising dramatically. The facilities to which these juveniles are sent have failed to rehabilitate them, though , and a high percentage of the youths continue with their life of crime. Because of this lack of success , law-abiding citizens of the country realize that these problems must be addressed immediately.
Definition
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Frame for definition topic sentence:
To most people, (subject) is _______________; however, it really is ______________________.
To most people, a hero is a famous person who is admired or idealized ; however, a hero is really anyone who goes out of the way to help others -
Structure for definition paragraph:
common definition or denotation: a famous person who is admired or idealized
writer’s expanded definition or connotation: anyone who goes out of the way to help others
explanation/examples/details: healthcare professionals
explanation/examples/details: grocery and convenience store workers
Model definition paragraph
To most people, a hero is a famous person who is admired or idealized; however, it really is anyone who goes out of the way to help others . For example, during the pandemic that began in 2020, a number of people with everyday jobs suddenly became heroes. First, the need for healthcare went up sharply, and healthcare professionals worked many overtime hours and risked their lives to diagnose and treat others, with the hope of saving them. Consequently, these people became heroes. Also, because most people stayed at home and restaurants were closed, people purchased more food from grocery stores. Therefore, the people who delivered the food to grocery stores and the essential workers at the grocery stores became heroes to those who depended on their services.
Figure \(11.12\) Health care workers in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic (credit: “Healthcare workers wearing PPE” by Javed Anees/Wikimedia Commons, CC0)
Checking Validity
After you have completed your paragraphs, check the validity, or soundness, of their logic. To perform this check, begin by assessing the logical connection of your topic sentences to your thesis statement. Because the topic sentences are the major supporting statements for your thesis, each one should support it. Ask and answer the following questions of each topic sentence:
- Does this topic sentence reflect the reasoning strategy you are using?
- Does this topic sentence directly support the thesis statement?
- Does the topic sentence make a sensible point?
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What is the topic sentence’s purpose? Is it to provide
- background information;
- a reason;
- an illustration;
- an explanation; or
- a response to a counterclaim? (See Position Argument: Practicing the Art of Rhetoric for more information about counterclaims.)
If you have trouble answering any of the questions and cannot establish the sentence’s validity, consider revising the topic sentence.
Next, check the validity of your body paragraphs’ development. To perform this check, copy and paste to a new page one topic sentence and the sentences that develop it. Then, answer these questions on all the major supporting ideas that you develop for each topic sentence:
- Does this body paragraph reflect the reasoning strategy you are using?
- Does developing the idea in this body paragraph directly support its topic sentence?
- Does this idea make a sensible point?
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What is the purpose of developing this idea? Is it to provide
- background information;
- a reason for the topic sentence’s claim;
- an illustration of the topic sentence’s point;
- an explanation of the sentence’s point; or
- evidence demonstrating the topic sentence’s point?
If you have trouble answering any of the questions and cannot establish a supporting idea’s validity, consider revising or replacing the idea with one that you can logically develop to prove, illustrate, or explain the topic idea.
Further Reading
The following titles are well-known examples of writings that use the reasoning strategies of analogy, cause and effect, classification and division, comparison and contrast, problem and solution, and definition.
Kennedy, John. “Inaugural Address.” John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum , 20 Jan. 1961, https://www.jfklibrary.org/learn/abo...ugural-address . Accessed 25 Jan. 2021.
King, Martin Luther, Jr. “Letter from a Birmingham Jail [King, Jr.].” African Studies Center—University of Pennsylvania , 16 April 1963, https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Article...irmingham.html . Accessed 1 Feb. 2021.
Lincoln, Abraham. “The Gettysburg Address.” Abraham Lincoln Online , 19 Nov. 1863, http://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org/...gettysburg.htm . Accessed 1 Feb. 2021.
Yousafzai, Malala. “Nobel Peace Prize Acceptance Speech.” Malala.org , 10 Dec. 2014, https://www.malala.org/ newsroom/archive/malala-nobel-speech. Accessed 23 Jan. 2021.
Works Cited
Kerlin, Kat. “Wildlife Experience High Price of Oil.” UC Davis , 2 June 2015, www.ucdavis.edu/news/wildlifeexperience-high-price-oil/. Accessed 5 Mar. 2021.
Pennisi, Elizabeth. “$180 Million DNA ‘Barcode’ Project Aims to Discover 2 Million New Species.” Science , 6 Jun. 2019, https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019...on-new-species . Accessed 1 Feb. 2021.
Plato. “Book VII.” The Republic . E-book, Translated by B. Jowett, Project Gutenberg, 2016. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1497...#link2H_4_0010 .
“Poster Design Guide.” Cain Project , 2003. Rice University, www.owlnet.rice.edu/~cainproj/designing. Accessed 25 Jan. 2021.
Royal Shakespeare Company. Macbeth , https://www.rsc.org.uk/shakespeare-l...g-zone/macbeth . Accessed 26 Apr. 2021.
Thurman, Susan Sommers, and William L. Gary, Jr. Critical Literacy: Integrating Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing . Cognella, Inc., 2019.
“World’s First Centre for Rapid DNA Species Identification Opens in Guelph.” CBC News , 9 May 2007, https://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/w...dentification- opens-in-guelph-1.663503. Accessed 1 Feb. 2021.